We describe the various properties of objects. " Lesson plan (math) on the topic: Properties of objects

The value of a specific item   characterized by such properties: comparability, variability and relativity.

The main property of the quantity is comparability. Only as a result of comparison can a quantitative characteristic of any value be obtained.

Value is also characterized variability and relativity. One and the same object can be defined by us as larger or smaller, depending on the size of the object with which it is compared.

The property of the quantity is variability. Example: changing the length of a table only changes its size, but does not change its content and quality, the table remains the table.

The third property of the quantity is relativity. The value of any item is relative, it depends on what other value it is considered. In fact, one and the same object can be defined by us as larger or smaller, depending on what size object it is compared to.

It should also be noted that quantity is such a property of an objectwhich can not be represented in isolation from the subject. The value is inseparable from it.

Comparability, variability, relativity - the main properties of quantity can be understood by preschoolers in the most specific form, in actions with various objects when selecting and comparing their length, width, height, volume.

Item size, those. item sizeis determined based on comparison only. It cannot be said whether it is a large or small object, it can only be compared with others. Thanks to comparison, you can come to understand the relationship and to new concepts: “more”, “less”, “equal”, which determine various qualities, including length, width, height, volume and many others.

Not always items   exposed direct comparison. In life, you often have to produce mental comparison   this subject with the prevailing general ideas about the size of known objects.

Perception of magnitude   depends on:

From the distance from which the subject is perceived, as well as

From the size of the subject with which it is compared.

The farther the subject from the one who perceives it, the smaller it seems, and vice versa, the closer it is, the larger it seems. Preschoolers are characterized by a constant perception of size, that is, children, especially younger preschoolers, do not take into account the remoteness of objects when determining the size.

Characteristic value   subject also depends location in space. The same subject can be characterized how tall (low), how long (short).

It depends on in horizontal   or upright   he is in.

Reflection of quantity as a spatial attribute   subject associated with perception   - The most important sensory process, which is aimed at identifying and examining an object, revealing its features. Various analyzers are involved in this process.: visual, auditory, musculoskeletal, and the motor analyzer plays a leading role in their mutual work, providing an adequate perception of the size of objects.

Perception of magnitude   going on by establishing complex communication systems, as intra-analytic   (between the muscle and optical components of the eye), and inter-analyzer   (between tactile and motor, motor and visual analyzers). It follows that young children, not having enough experience, often make false conclusions about the size of the subject, since they are judged only by cash images on the retina.

Great is also the role of the word   in the process of perceiving quantities. Thanks word denoting a quantitybecomes possible the allocation of value as an independent attribute of the subject.

The problem of reflection of magnitude   cannot be considered only as a problem of perception. It should equally be considered and like a problem of thinking. The knowledge of the value is carried out, on the one hand, on a touch basisand on the other - mediated by thinking and speech.

Between the senses and the mind there is a complex dialectic dependence, which finds a concrete manifestation, for example, in that value perception process   (as well as other properties) mediated by thinking   by comparing, analyzing, using appropriate concepts, judgments, inferences, etc. An indispensable thought operation that provides an assessment of the magnitude of objects is a comparison.

Thus, it should be noted that the concept is complex enough for perception and awareness by preschoolers.

Adequate perception of magnitude   depends on:

Experience in practical handling of objects,

Eye development,

Inclusion in the process of perception of the word,

The participation of thought processes: comparison, analysis and synthesis.

Perception of the size of objects by preschool children   is different some features.

The experience of sensory distinction of magnitude, which is taking shape at an early age, has been local character: a sign of magnitude is firmly attached to a specific subject.

For children junior and middle   preschool age value   yet not a primary identifier   and has no signal value. Children recognize a sign of magnitude only when that sign becomes significant   for them, acquires practical significance.

They are easier to perceive and compare the size of the subject, if this sign is contrast.

Due to lack of life experience, preschoolers weakly correlate the value of one object with the value of another.

The concept of the magnitude of objects wears in younger preschoolers (children 3 years old) global, undifferentiated nature, i.e. They are guided by the total volume of the object, not highlighting its length, width, height.

They define any sign of magnitude as large or small. Preschool children have difficulty learning the relative nature of the size of an item — the fact that one and the same item can be large and small depending on which other item its size is compared with.

- Children of four years   already differentiallysuitable for the selection of items length or width, but provided that the length of the subject exceeds the width.

Preschoolers hardly know three-dimensionality of magnitude. For them it remains for a long time difficultdistinction in the same subject several signs   quantities.

In older preschool age   the child learns to distinguish between the parameters of quantities, their properties, learns verbal description, the use of the properties of objects in different types of activities. At this time, he masters the methods of perceiving more complex phenomena. For children of preschool age, a short period is required for mastering all three dimensions.

Preschoolers are poorly developed constancy of perception   - the ability to perceive the size of an object at different distances and in different positions.

Isolation of a quantity as an independent attribute of an object   becomes possible thanks to the word, indicating value. With the help of the word, the sign of magnitude is distracted from the object, and this allows children to highlight this sign in any objects, with their different positions. By assimilating the names of quantities in a familiar situation, the child can use them in relation to new objects that he had not previously perceived. The generalization in speech of the sensory experience of distinguishing values \u200b\u200bcreates the basis for the formation of ideas and concepts about the size of objects.

The word magnitude itself is incomprehensiblechildren since they rarely hear him. When children’s attention turns on item size, educators prefer to use words same, same   which are ambiguous, therefore they should supplement with a word denoting a signby which items are matched ( find the same in size: length, width, height   etc.).

Highlighting a particular dimensionthe child seeks show him   (runs a finger along the length, shows with the divorced hands the width, etc.). These inspection actions are very important for a more differentiated perception of the size of the subject.

Inability to perceive differentially value   items significantly affects   on the designation a word of objects of various sizes. Most often, children use the words "big - small" in relation to any subject. This is due to the fact that adults surrounding children often use inaccurate words to indicate the size of objects (a large ruler instead of a long one).

The value of perception in the life of a preschooler   very large since creates the foundationfor the development of thinking, promotes the development of speech, memory, attention, imagination. A well-developed perception can manifest itself in the form of a child's observation, his ability to notice the features of objects and phenomena, details that an adult will not notice.

the following types of subjects are listed in the academic grammar of the Russian language, as they are understood in grammar: objects, phenomena and events of reality and stand out ... living beings. This listing is incomplete because it does not cover ideal things. For example, syllogism is not an object, phenomenon or event of reality. Nor is he a living being. Nevertheless, this is a real subject in a grammatical sense. It is expressed in the language of the word denoting objects - a noun.
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   The essence of the grammatical understanding of the subject is well expressed in the school textbook: “The subject in grammar refers to all that you can ask who is it? or what is it? ”
Who is it? or what is it? you can ask about everything that our thought is aimed at, regardless of whether it is an object of the material world or its reflection in a person’s head. Thus, the grammatical category of an object corresponds to a logical and thereby qualitative understanding of a thing.
   Of course, spatial characteristics are most obvious, they are most likely to “catch the eye”. Therefore, the initial meanings of the words “thing” and “object” are indeed primarily spatial, as are the meanings of many other words. However, this is not an argument in favor of thus understanding these words at the present time.
   The history of the language shows how many other, less obvious meanings develop from the initially purely spatial, which subsequently become more and more used. Therefore, the above references Tugarinova to the etymology of the word "subject" are unfounded. Philosophical analysis should operate primarily not with the meanings of words that were basic in the past, but with those that become more and more common in the process of language development.
   Many facts suggest that in language a qualitative understanding of a thing is increasingly replacing a purely spatial one. A qualitative understanding of a thing is manifested in language not only in the absence of a grammatical differentiation of material and ideal objects, but also in a number of other phenomena. For example, we are talking about an adult, that this is the same person who was once a child. Understanding the thing spatially, we would have to say about the adult that it is the same child. However, we say that this is the same human. And this is true with a good understanding of things. One thing - a child - has turned into another thing - an adult, but this transformation takes place within the qualitative boundaries of the thing that we call man.
   Summing up, we can say that a qualitative understanding of a thing is the same in the ontological, logical, and grammatical planes.
3 A.I. Uemov
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Chapter II
PROPERTIES
1. PROPERTY AND QUALITY
In the previous paragraphs, the concept of quality, on the basis of which the concept of a thing was formed, was not defined. The use of the word "quality" in the above reasoning can cause a rebuke in the confusion of the concepts of quality and property, especially since sometimes one of these words was replaced by another for purely stylistic reasons. Usually, in our philosophical literature, the concepts of quality and property are considered incompatible with each other. To clarify these concepts that are most important for our work, let us first consider their usual understanding. Let's start with the concept of "quality."
   At one time, Hegel defined quality as "certainty identical with being." The Hegelian understanding of quality in the 1920s was the basis for the definition of this concept in many works on dialectical materialism. In a special monograph on the problem of quality, A. Stolyarov, directly from Hegel’s understanding, gives the following definition: “This is constancy or stability in variability is what makes a certain being possible, the certainty of which makes it what it is and is its quality. ”
   Many years later, the Hegelian formulation was reproduced by B. M. Kedrov. A more complete, expanded expression of this understanding of quality was found in the textbook edited by G.F. Alexandrov. “Quality is the certainty inherent in objects and phenomena, the organic unity of the properties, attributes, features that distinguish this subject
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   or a phenomenon from others. Quality as a philosophical category serves to indicate the specificity of things, phenomena of the world around us.
   Quality is what makes objects or phenomena what they are, given and not others. ”
   Essentially the same, although sometimes not so definite, the concept of quality is formulated in other educational publications on dialectical materialism. Only the textbook of M. N. Rutkevich stands out, in which the concept of quality is not defined, but it refers to qualitative differences as differences in essence.
   What is such a property? What is the difference between a property and quality?
   Here is what B. M. Kedrov writes about this: “Quality and quality are not the same thing. Quality is inseparable from a thing: its change means a change in the thing itself: property, on the contrary, is connected with the relation of a thing to other things and processes of nature. Hence, it is relative. Under changed conditions, a thing may lose its property, but in such a way that it itself remains the same qualitatively determined thing. ”
The same is essentially said in the textbooks of dialectical materialism, for example: “Quality reveals itself through properties in the process of interconnection between objects and phenomena, and the organic unity of properties forms this qualitative certainty of an object or phenomenon. However, quality and property are not equal. Quality is an integral characteristic of a thing and phenomenon, while a property reveals a thing or phenomenon from one side ”.
   So, the difference between quality and property is seen in the following: a) the property is relative, the quality is absolute; b) without these or those properties, a thing can exist; destruction of quality destroys a thing.
   Of course, various concepts can be formed using different definitions. The discrepancy between the concepts of different people in itself cannot serve as a basis for accusing one of them that his concepts are incorrect. Therefore, ceteris paribus, in order to avoid futile disputes over words, it is necessary to proceed from generally accepted concepts and definitions.
3*
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   However, a revision of concepts and definitions is justified if old concepts lead to a contradiction with experimental facts or with other concepts and judgments, the truth of which is beyond doubt. Both were discovered in relation to the traditional understanding of things. And what can be said in this sense regarding the above definitions of quality and property?
   First of all, it should be noted that these definitions are incompatible with the traditional, spatial understanding of a thing. According to these definitions, different things should have different qualities, and the same things should have the same quality, since the qualitative specificity distinguishes this subject from all others.
   But the identity of things understood as bodies is determined exclusively by spatio-temporal relationships, while spatio-temporal relationships are not so significant for determining the identity of qualities. Two electrons located in different places in space are two different things, therefore, we would have to assume that their qualities are different. But, on the other hand, the “organic unity of properties, attributes, features” that defines quality, they have the same thing, therefore, they have the same quality - to be an electron.
Such a contradiction, of course, does not refute the definition of quality - it can only serve as an extra argument against the traditional understanding of things. In addition, this contradiction indicates that the definition of quality should be consistent with a qualitative understanding of things. But there is no such correspondence either. Indeed quality inherent   things it should characterize   thing. But that, what   inherent then what   characterizes, should be somewhat different from why   inherent what   characterized by. In other words, the concept of quality must be different from the concept of thing. But the above definitions of quality make them identical. In fact, what can a thing have besides the organic unity of properties, attributes, etc., which distinguish it from other things? The book cited above by A. Stolyarov directly speaks of the coincidence of the categories of thing and quality: “In Marxist literature
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   thing and quality are equated all the time. ”
   In addition, the considered definitions of quality contradict many indisputably true provisions on properties and qualities, including those that are given by the authors of definitions of properties and qualities.
   So, B. M. Kedrov, in full agreement with the facts, asserts that the property is relative, i.e., it depends on the relations of the given object with other objects and changes with the change of the latter. Moreover, this characteristic of the property is opposed to the definition of quality. At the same time, quality is a combination of properties. Could it then be irrelevant? Apparently not. Therefore, property and quality cannot be opposed in this respect.
   Further, B. M. Kedrov considers the following words of V. I. Lenin very important for understanding quality: “Quality and sensation (EtrKpysh) are one and the same, says Feuerbach. The very first and most initial is the sensation, and in him   inevitably and quality..." .
   But sensation in itself does not allow us to perceive the integral certainty of a thing. With the help of sensations we perceive only certain aspects of a thing. On their basis, perception arises. And in order to know even in general terms such an internal certainty of a thing that distinguishes it from all other things, a rather complicated work of abstract thinking is necessary. As the history of science shows, from the knowledge of certain aspects of the subject to the knowledge of what B. M. Kedrov calls quality, “a lot of time usually passed”. B. M. Kedrov himself shows this with instructive examples from the history of chemistry.

Topic 1. SIGNS AND PROPERTIES OF SUBJECTS

Absolutely all objects surrounding us have signs and properties. What is an attribute of an object?

An attribute of an item is a distinguishing feature of an item. For example: a green car: a car is an object, and green is a sign, a property that distinguishes it from other similar objects (for example, from a red car).

Items vary in color, in shape, in size, in purpose, in smell, in the material from which they are made, and in other ways. To determine the sign of an object, you can ask the question: what is it?

Let's try to highlight the essential (that is, the main) signs of an ordinary notebook. Tell me what notebook it is: what material it is made of, what size, what thickness, what is it for? If you managed to talk about the notebook, then you managed to highlight the signs by which it differs, for example, from a pencil. So, one of the main features of the subject is color. We denote the color as follows:

And the first thing we need to repeat is the colors of the rainbow.

Now name as many items as possible:

a) red;

b) green;

c) black;

d) blue color.

Look carefully at the picture and tell me which vegetables and fruits are painted incorrectly. How would you color them?

Well, we are convinced that you are familiar with such a sign of objects as color.

The next important attribute of the subject is form. We denote the form as follows:

What shape are objects? Round, square, what else?

Name as many items as possible:

a) round shape;

b) oval;

c) square;

d) rectangular.

Look carefully at the table. Which of the fruits and vegetables lying on it are of the form shown in the diagram:   and this color:?

The next important attribute of an item is size. We will denote the size as follows:

And now correctly name the large and small objects in pairs. For example, an elephant is an elephant calf.

Highlighting signs of objects, for example, color - red, yellow; shape - round, square; size - large, small - we compare objects with each other.

Now try using the notation
  identify signs of such items: blue cube, big red ball, tall yellow house. You can designate, for example, as follows:

- Red Apple.

There are many more signs of objects. We have presented them for you in the table. Using this table, you can identify the features of many objects.

TABLE OF DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS OF SUBJECTS

Show in the picture objects that have a smell. Try to label them with a table.

We examined such important features of objects as color, shape, size, got acquainted with the table of designations of features of objects, tried to use these designations. And now we will try to carry out the CONTROL WORK. With it, we will check how you learned the material.

Task 1. Look carefully at the picture and complete the task. And the adults who help you answer the questions of the test will enter the answers in a special answer form.

Task 2. Guess the riddles about what Nyusha bought at the bazaar?

1 riddle

2 riddle

3 riddle

4. Make your own puzzle about what grows in the garden

Task 3.

Task 4.

Task 5.

Task 6.

In each window, find the desired pattern.

1. What is an effective manager

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As shown, the content of any concept consists of the essential properties inherent in a particular class of objects. It is these properties that distinguish these objects from objects of other classes. Both the process of mastering concepts and the process of their subsequent use are associated with working with properties. This means that students must first of all learn to see properties, know the types of properties, and be able to distinguish them.

In order for students to come to understand the essential properties, it is first important to teach them how to distinguish properties in objects. Of course, this should be done in elementary school. Usually students of this age do not see that the object has many different properties. How to teach students to see these properties? To do this, you need to disclose the contents of the technique for highlighting properties in objects. The technique consists in comparing this subject with other objects with different properties, as a result of which the student identifies those properties that were previously hidden to him.

Mastery of the method of comparison makes it possible to proceed to highlight general and distinctive properties in objects. Students working with several subjects (for example, cubes of different sizes, colors, the material from which they are made, etc.) highlight the properties that distinguish these subjects from each other (distinctive properties), and properties common to these items (for example, the shape of a cube).

After students have learned how to distinguish common and distinctive properties in objects, they should be taught to distinguish between essential, important properties (from the point of view of a certain concept) and non-essential, secondary ones. To this end, you can introduce a technique that helps the student to establish which properties of these objects are essential and which are not.

The technique consists in sequentially varying the non-essential, secondary properties of a given subject and stating that this does not lead to a change in the membership of the subject in a particular concept (class). So, a triangle remains a triangle regardless of the size of its angles, sides, spatial location of the triangle itself.

A change in the essential properties of the subject in question leads to the fact that this subject will relate to another concept. For example, an increase in the number of sides of a triangle does not allow us to attribute this figure to the concept of a triangle - it can be a quadrangle, pentagon, etc.

It is advisable to work out the method of identifying essential and non-essential properties in various subjects belonging to different fields of knowledge, so that students see the general nature of the technique, its independence from a specific material. So, using the example of the concept of “deciduous trees”, we can show students that these trees can differ from each other in many properties: the color of the bark, the shape and color of the leaves, the thickness and length of the trunk, the number of branches, etc. However, all these trees remain unchanged one property - the presence of leaves, which gives us the right to call them deciduous trees. If we change this essential property - we take trees not with leaves, but with needles, then we cannot call them deciduous trees: these will be coniferous trees.

Students tend to accept any general property as essential, therefore it is important to show them that all essential properties are simultaneously common to a given class of subjects. So, the presence of a geometric figure - a triangle - of three sides, is both a common and essential feature of all triangles. At the same time, it is necessary to show students that not all common properties in objects are their essential properties. For example, common to all triangles studied in planimetry is that they are located on a plane. This property is a common, but not essential property of these geometric figures (a triangle can also be located in three-dimensional space).

The ability to differentiate the properties of objects into essential and non-essential allows us to bring students to an understanding of such types of properties as necessary, sufficient, necessary and sufficient.

The necessary properties of the concept are those that are necessarily present in all objects related to this concept, as well as in some objects related to the opposite concept of the same kind.

Sufficient properties of the concept are those that are inherent in some objects related to this concept, and are not inherent in any object related to the opposite concept of the same kind.

Necessary and sufficient properties of a concept are those that all objects belonging to this concept necessarily have, and not a single object belonging to the opposite concept of the same kind is present.

The absence of one of the indicated properties of a concept or all of them at once leads to the fact that the given subject is not related to the given concept. So, the property “part of the line” is a necessary property of any segment or ray. If a geometric object does not have this property, then it does not belong to the concept of a “segment” (or “ray”).

The property "has two boundary points" or "is limited on two sides" is inherent only to the concept of "segment" and is not inherent to the concept of "ray". Therefore, these properties are necessary and sufficient in relation to the concept of "segment".

Misunderstanding of the difference between necessary, sufficient, necessary and at the same time sufficient properties is widespread among students. So, students of the seventh grades were offered special tasks, the implementation of which involves the possession of the ability to differentiate these types of properties. Here is one of these tasks: “The theorem is known:“ the diagonals of a rhombus are mutually perpendicular. ” Explain which of the two formulations of this theorem is valid: 1) if the quadrangle is a rhombus, then its diagonals are mutually perpendicular; 2) if the diagonals are perpendicular, then this quadrangle is a rhombus. ”

The results of the assignment showed that 50% of the students coped with it (they chose the first definition as the right one). 26% of students answered that both of the proposed statements are correct. It is characteristic that these students did not see a difference in the indicated provisions at all. They believed that both formulations said the same thing, "only the words are rearranged." This means that they do not understand the difference between the necessary properties and the sufficient properties.

In the second statement, these properties are necessary for the rhombus, but they are not sufficient to determine it, since not only the rhombus, but also the deltoid satisfies these requirements.

Similar mistakes are made by students in work not only with mathematical, but also with other material. So, the students of VIII-IX grades were offered the following task: "Prove which of these words - beauty, fireplace, large, nail - are adjectives and which are not." One of the students correctly reproduced the definition of an adjective, but could not apply it correctly. Here is his answer: "We need to check on the question" which? " If a word answers this question, then it is an adjective. ” The teacher draws the attention of the student to the fact that the definition indicates another property: adjectives indicate the signs of objects. The student was confused and refused to complete the task.

In this case, the situation is similar to the previous one: the student confuses the necessary and sufficient properties. That adjective is a word that answers the questions “what?”

(which?) ”is a necessary property: all adjectives answer this question. Any word that does not answer this question (does not have this property) is not an adjective. However, this property alone is not enough to highlight words that are adjectives. In fact, the question “what?” Is answered by the words that are participles: blushing, coming out, running, etc. That is why, to highlight adjectives, two properties must be considered.

It is important to show that not every necessary attribute is sufficient. Pupils' mistakes are often associated with the fact that they with the necessary signs act as sufficient. For example, a quadrangle having at least two right angles, they consider a rectangle. This is not true, since a rectangular trapezoid also has such properties. For both a rectangular trapezoid and a rectangle, this property is necessary, but for neither one nor the other object is sufficient. This means that not every necessary property is sufficient. Conversely, not every sufficient property is necessary.

“Where is it warmer: here, in the classroom, or in the yard?” - “In the room warmer. "- “Why?” - “The stove is heated in the room, and the stove heats up.” “And if the stove is heated in the yard, will it be warm in the yard?” - “No, the room is fenced with walls, ceiling and floor, which do not allow heat to leave ".-" What is the stove made of, what is the wall of? "-" The stove brick, stone;   walls wooden ".- “Why a stone stove, not a wooden one?” - “A fire is made in the stove, a wooden one would burn.” - “Tell me here things that can burn out; name those that do not burn. So I put a chair on the stove: which is wider - a chair or a stove? ”-“ A stove wider, the chair is narrower. "- “What are our tables?” - “Our tables narrowand long. "- “Why are they done this?” - “It’s good for us to sit in the room in winter, because we don’t get cold” .- “And what can we do in the room?” - “In the room we can write, sew, cut, planer and so on. . ".-" Can we do it in the dark? When it happens light   when it happens dark? Where is lighter: in a room or in a barn with closed doors? ”-“ The room is lighter, because ^ there are windows. The windows in the room are punched so that it is light. "-" Why in the windows of the frame? "-" Frames in order to insert glass into them that let in the light, not letting cold out of the yard. "-" So I put in window board: is it visible through it or not? ”-“ Through the board is not visible: it not transparent   and glass transparent. "“Why do we need transparent glasses?” Here is a glass, what is it like? ”-“ A glass glass, transparent. ”-“ And what kind? Light or heavy? Why is the glass light? Why is it hard to drink directly from the bucket? ”-“ The glass is easier to lift and bring to the lips than the bucket. ”“ Why is it only easier to bring the glass to the mouth that it is light? ”-“ It’s also because it’s small, the bucket is big, and it’s hard to put it on our lips ”-“ If you sit under the table cover, can you stand on your feet? ”-“ No. ”-“ How do you stand in the room, not under the table cover? ”-“ After all, the ceiling cover too. ”- “Ceiling high,   and the tabletop low".- “Why do we need the table top to be low?” - “At the table we are sitting, leaning on it with our elbows.” - “And the bench is higher or lower?” - “The bench is even lower.” - “Why?”

So the teacher further indicates not only the properties of the subject, but also their purpose and, if possible, the reasons why the subject has those and not other properties. This must be borne in mind when ascertaining each property. General concepts about the material from which the object is made, about its color, size, shape, position, transparency, hardness, etc., do not yet constitute real knowledge about the object. Clarifying them, we do not leave the circle of abstract concepts. We only find out that things are stone, wood, round, flat, white, etc., and this is still not enough. In addition to the general concept of properties that occur in different things, it is also important to know which property in one thing or another is most necessary, which is random in it: that which in one case can be essential and necessary, in the other is random, and vice versa (white color in writing paper, white color in paper, which box is glued). Here we consider the properties of things in connection with their use and purpose, and this is always easy to indicate in ordinary objects made by man. Thus, each sign is much clearer and more visual to the student, and he not only understands it, but also recognizes its connection with other signs in the subject. (According to its purpose, the table should be of a known height, have legs or a support and a smooth board on top; it is more convenient for a class if it is black in order not to get dirty too much.) In the objects of nature, such explanations require special knowledge that are not assigned for the first year, but here you can touch on some differences that are well known to the student (for which a cat needs claws, a dog and a wolf teeth and fast legs, bird wings, tree roots, etc.). However, in preliminary conversations it is enough to limit ourselves to subjects that are or can be found in the classroom. We now point to the properties of the objects separately.

The material from which the items are made, and their other qualities. What is a chair, table, bench made of? What else is made of wood? What is the stove made of? What stone things do you know? (A sideboard, lead, chimney, stone house, stone fence, stone millstone at the mill, stone whetstone). What is the damper in the furnace made of? Show me more iron things (nail, deadbolt, key, lock, knife, saw, ax, needle, etc.). What kind of glass is this? What is it made of? What glass things do you know? (Inkwell, bottle, glass, glasses, etc.) Why is a knife, an ax, a key made of iron, and not of wood? Is it possible to make a stone ax, a stone knife? It would be difficult to sharpen a stone knife, because the stone is brittle, erased, crumbles. Here I have an iron (steel) knife: I bent it a little, and he straightened again. Iron bends; it is flexible, resilient. Does the stone bend? Is glass resilient? Is the tree springy? Fresh, raw twigs are springy, dry breaking, reeds are always springy. What can you say about glass? Glass is not elastic, brittle, can shatter; it is transparent. Is stone, wood, iron transparent? Is paper transparent? Thin paper and paper rubbed with oil are somewhat transparent. The sideboard is light, and what are the lighter sideboards here? The chair is heavy, and what things are even heavier than the chair? A small board is light, but a large one? A small stone is light, but a large one? The knife is light, and the ax? Which is easier: wood or stone, stone or iron? What is better in case of fire: a stone house or a wooden one? Why do not they build iron houses? Iron is expensive; in the summer, in the sun, it heats up very much, and in winter, in the cold, it soon gets colder (sometimes iron houses are also made in foreign lands). What is smoother: is this a log or a tree on a table? Tell me things smooth and rough. What happens liquid? Which is soft? What is hard?

Appointment of items. What is an aspid board for? What other things are needed for writing? What do they write on an aspid blackboard, on a large blackboard, on paper? Is it possible to write with coal and on what? Why is coal not so convenient? What is a table, chair, bench for? What else can you sit on? Why not take a tree stump instead of a bench, but a tub or box instead of a table. Is it possible to write completely without a table, only sitting on a bench or standing? Try to do it. What is the ceiling for? To shelter us from rain, cold, bad weather. Is one ceiling enough? Why is sex necessary? After all, you could walk in a room and on bare ground? Is it possible or not to get sick from dampness, from dirt? What are windows for? What are the windows and frames for? Which is better: small or large hut? Which hut is easier to breathe when there are a lot of people? What do they do with the walls of the hut so that it is warmer? The walls are caulked with tow, sheathed with boards. So as not to blow from the floor and ceiling, what are they doing? What windows should be in the hut? Is it good to have very small windows in the hut? What happens to the eyes when you work in the dark? Eyes weaken and you can completely go blind. What else is needed for heat? Are walls, ceiling, and floor enough? What is a good oven? What kind of firewood is more heat? Is it good when the stove smokes? Is it good to close the stove early? What is being done from waste? What is worse than a chicken hut? What is the caftan, sheepskin coat and other clothes? What are the clothes that cover the head, chest, back and arms, stomach, hips and legs. Besides heat and light, what else do we need? Is it good if you walk dirty, sit in a dirty room? How is this harmful? You can get sick from the dirt: you are completely emaciated, and all sorts of rashes, scabies will go on the body, bad animals will start ... what? How to keep clean on the body, in clothes, in bed, in the room? What is a glass for? What other utensils are needed for food, for drinking? How would you do if you had no glass, no jug, no dipper, no fork, no knife, no plate? Would that be good? What is not good? Do I need cleanliness in the dishes?

The color of the items. In order for children to clearly distinguish colors, one must first introduce them to the pure colors of the rainbow, since the colors on the surrounding objects are mostly mixed. To do this, the teacher brings to the class colored pieces of paper or balls made of colored wool (or simply skeins of wool), painted in pure colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, blue, purple. He, in addition, needs to have at least three, four pieces of good paint (carmine, minium, gummigut, Prussian blue). He will then show how from the combination of red and yellow orange, yellow with blue or blue - green, blue with red - violet. Having mixed all these colors, he will get a black color. In black, all colors are destroyed; that's why everything is dark or gray at night. On the contrary, white is a combination of all colors: the rays of the sun are white, and in the rainbow they fall into seven colors. If it is difficult for the teacher to get these things, then he can always have tar, sealing wax and several pieces of glass. With a sharp edge of the file, he scraped out the features on the glass and, according to these features, easily breaks off the glass (especially not thick ones) into oblong plates about two and a half inches wide and about five inches long. You need only three of these glass; where there is a glazier, there is nothing worth cutting them out. He folds these three identical glass pieces with the edges into a triangle and ties them together to hold them; then glues them around the edges with wax or tar and then removes the threads. He will put this triangular prism on the plank and also glue it to the plank from below. It is necessary to glue well, especially from the bottom, so that there is not the slightest hole, but also not to cover the glass with wax too much. So a triangular cup comes out in which you can pour water. Having chosen a sunny day, this prism or glass of water should be placed in the sun, on a window with clean, unfrozen glasses (it is even better to do this in a dark room or in a barn, leaving one hole for sunlight). When the sun hits a prism, a bright rainbow will turn out against it on the table, on the floor or on the wall. The teacher slightly rotates around and moves the glass until it receives a rainbow; then at this point he will put white paper so that the colors are more clearly visible. By this rainbow, he will explain to the students the colors with their tints. If he manages to find or break off a smooth, angular and clean piece of ice, then holding it somewhat sideways in the sun will achieve! "The same thing. A school that has the means will not skimp on acquiring a real prism. A prism from glass can be made much narrower, but then such wide multi-colored stripes will not come out and it will be more difficult to consider colors. “But isn’t this an extra idea? - the reader will ask, accustomed to thinking that only a certificate is needed for a public school, all this is probably good, but will it be time? ”What we do not sacrifice a letter for any other business, the reader will see further, in our very presentation how to do literacy. But we would only like to ask: how much time does the school take for fruitless, sketchy conversations with completely undeveloped students? To take care from the very beginning, to give a harmonious course to thoughts, to accustom to think in objects, means at once to facilitate the study of all school science. Anyone who acts differently, looks like a landlord who would build a house from logs without floor, without windows, without a door, without a stove, without everything that makes the house suitable for habitation, and would leave it in case you need light windows, if they steal, make a door with a lock, if it gets cold, arrange a stove. Of course, he will spend ten times more time, money and labor for building a house than if he began to build thoroughly from the very beginning. We turn to our subject. Does the child need to be able to distinguish colors? If this is necessary, then why wait for the case when it will be found in the book, each time to interrupt reading and resume interpretations that cannot sit firmly in the head, because they are fragmentary and random? By giving a precise concept about flowers, you will save time for future explanations. This is what we had in mind when we somewhat spread the volume of our conversations.

When the teacher sees that the children distinguish between colored pieces of paper or rainbow colors, he will draw their attention to the colors of the surrounding objects and ask questions: what color is the wall, brick, snow, shirt, caftan, grass, sky, what color do you know the flowers ? At the same time, he will also indicate transitional, mixed colors: yellowish, sparkling yellow, bluish, solid, lilac, dark red, brown, gray, greenish gray and so on. What hair does Petya, Vanya, and Masha have? Whose hair is lighter, darker, yellower? Tell me some things you saw in red, orange, yellow, green, blue, blue, purple. For a larger exercise, the teacher will try to bring different colored objects to the class (different beads, beads, some berries, beets, etc.).

The position of items. Vasya, where are you looking now: up or down? You look straight ahead. Turn your head to the right, turn left, get up, turn back. Fedya, do the same. Nastya, Senya, Masha, do what I’ll say together: head up, head down, look straight, turn your head left, right, stand up, turn back. We will do it all together: raise one right hand, lower the right hand, raise the left, stand up - all turn the head left, right, stand on one right foot and raise the left hand, stand on one left foot and raise the right hand, raise both hands up, lower down, stretch forward, fold back, bend to the right side, bend to the left side, tilt the whole body forward, tilt back, hit the floor with one right foot, one left. The teacher makes sure that all this is done correctly, and whoever does not understand, makes them especially do it. What do you see in front of you? Tell tig, Kolya. What is the front wall? Which right? Thj, Senya. Which left? You, Natasha. Which one is behind? You, Misha. What is right in front of you? You, Vanya. What is it from you? What's up? What's down? What is opposite the stove?

So I put two books: which is the middle of you, which is the back? And from me which front, which back? From you this wall is front, this back, this left, this right. Turn back: what will be the front wall from you then, which back, right, left? From me, if I get up like that, how will the walls be? And if so? And if so? Where is the ceiling from you? Where is the floor? Here I am holding a board in one hand and a book in the other: what am I holding, which is lower? Tell me what's closer to you, what's next. Here's a stick for you all. Raise the sticks up, down, lower, hold directly in front of you, closer, further, move right, left, point the stick right and left, right, back, up, up, down. Take the slate boards. Put the stick along the board, across, obliquely, on top of the board, from the bottom, from the right, from the left side, hold the stick above the board, under the board, put the boards upright, hold the stick in front of the board, behind the board, stick through the board, put the board, rotate the board vice versa. Here is a piece of chintz: where is the face, where is the wrong side? Where is your face on the dress, where is the wrong side?

The shape of the items. Take slate boards: specify how the board will be in length, in width, in thickness? Where is the table length, width, height, thickness? Here is a piece of paper: how am I showing now? In length. Now how? Wide. Show with a stick, how will the wall be in height? How long? Where is the length in this room, where is the width? How big is the room: long or wide? Here I have a box: so what will happen? Length. So? Width. So? Height. But I will put it on the short side - like this: now the length of what has become? High When a person lies, how will he be from head to toe? In length. And when is it? To the top. What is the ribbon? The ribbon is narrow and long. What is a tablecloth? Wide. When the jacket is only waist-high, how do they talk about it? The jacket is said to be short. And what kind of caftan floors are there? Long. And the vest, if he is very tight? Narrow. What about trees? High. And the bushes? Low. And the knife, when to sharpen it? Acute. And if they cut a lot, what will it become? Dumb. Show and name me things here: tall and short, wide, narrow, long and short, sharp and dull (children themselves can make such things out of sticks and paper). Here I cut three pieces of paper of the same length (the teacher cuts out three pieces of paper: the first is narrower, the second is wider, the third is even wider); first look at these two pieces of paper (the teacher takes the first and second): how do they differ? One is narrower, the other is wider. Which is wide: this or that? The one in the right hand is wider. Good; this first piece of paper is narrow, the second is wide, but I’ll take the third: what is it? The third is even wider. If I put the second next to the first, what will it be? Wide. And if next to the third? Then the second piece of paper will be narrow. This means that the same piece of paper can be wide, compared with one, and narrow, compared with another piece of paper. One and the same dress can be wide for one, narrow for another. In the same way, the teacher puts three sticks side by side: one low, the other higher, the third even higher and indicates that the middle stick is high compared to the first, and low compared to the third. The kitten is small, but in comparison with the cockroach, the kitten is a big animal. The river is narrow, but in comparison with the stream is quite wide. The hour is long, but short compared to the whole day. The road through the whole village is long, but in comparison with the road to another village is short. The moon is bright, but pale in comparison with the sun.

So I ran my hand across the table: it is even, flat; this paper is also flat, and if I bend it like this (the teacher bends the paper with a vault), will it be flat? No, it will be convex, round. Indicate which things are flat, which are convex or round. Is your head flat? What wall? What apple? What is the glass in the window? What kind of baked bread? The board is flat; count how many angles are in it: one, two, three, four. This board is quadrangular. What else is quadrangular here? (Wall, floor, ceiling, etc.) What paper is this? Four coal. But I will put it this way: how many angles are in it now? Three; Now the paper is triangular. Craig in a house with a ceiling what will be? Triangular. (The teacher makes a paper like a roof with a ceiling.) So what do we find in every thing? Here is the box: this is one side or face, this is the other; between the sides where they converge, an edge or rib; an angle is visible on each side where the ribs converge, and angles between the sides of the ribs are also visible. Here the angle between the sides is outside, but if I open the box, the angle inside is also visible. So, in the box there are sides and ribs: the corners are visible between the sides - at the ribs, and on the sides - between the ribs. Indicate the sides, or faces, edges and angles in a room, in a stove, in a board, in a stone, in a book, in a piece of wood.

When reviewing all these signs, one can take into account their attitude to our five senses. With our eyes we recognize color, with our eyes and with our hands (touch) - position, shape, material. Signs also apply to vision: light, bright, dark, foggy, gloomy and so on .; to hearing: quiet, loud, sonorous, deaf (knocking), etc .; to touch: warm, cold, hard, soft, smooth, heavy, light, dry, wet, etc .; to taste: sweet, bitter, salty.

Parts of the item. Here I have a piece of paper: I will tear a piece from it. This piece, is all the paper that I held? No, this is part of it: I have to put a piece to the sheet from which I tore it so that all the paper comes out. So I will tear the paper into pieces and give it to you: what have I done? I divided the paper in parts. Look, I’m holding a key in my fist: do you see the whole key? No, we see only part of it. Here is a knife: what do you see in it? We see one petiole, but the blades we do not see; we see only a part of the knife. If you take the leg from the table, will it be the whole table? No, this will be part of the table. And what other part of the table do you know? The other part of the table will be the tire, or top board. Point me to the parts in the room, in the stove, in the human body, in the head, in the cart, in the window, in the book. Why do we need wheels in the cart, and runners in the sleigh? Why don't they ride on skids in the summer, and on wheels in the winter? Why do I need a pipe in the stove? And what do ears, eyes, nose and mouth serve on the head? What hands, feet? What is the binding in the book? What is the stalk in the knife? And so on.

Action and condition. Place, time and course of action - to the questions: where, when, how? This includes all questions about the position of the subject and, in general, all explanations for action on the above grounds: put from above, to turn to the right   to tear across; tall house - the house rises high, narrow piece of paper - paper cut out narrowly,   smooth whiteboard scraped smooth   and so on. Let's review some of the actions.

Status and change of location:   lies, stands, is, rises, spreads, stretches; put, rotate, slide, remove, stick in and so on.

Actions in relation to the material:   make, cook, knock, knit, trim, cut, knock, forge, pour (metal), build, lay (stone), smudge (with lime, clay), mold, cut, cut, sew, sew, bind, knock down.

Color:   paint, bleach, blacken, paint, grind.

Actions in relation to vision:   see, look, look, observe, notice; shine, shine, shine, sparkle, flicker, fade, darken, fade, whiten, blacken, turn yellow, turn green, blush, shine, reflect (in water, in a mirror). The fence is wrapped, the paper is folded, the spinning top is spinning, the yard is spinning, the house is moving forward, the corner is protruding, the corner is protruding between the walls.

Actions in relation to hearing: hear, listen, listen, listen; whisper, make noise, buzz, whistle, rattle, rattle, rattle, rattle, jingle, rustle, rustle, make a rustle, hiss, rumble, knock, scream, vote, groan, howl, respond, respond. This also includes the various voices of animals.

Actions in relation to touch, smell and taste:to feel, touch, feel, smell, try; harden, become soft, liquid, melt, melt, get wet, warm, iron, smooth, prick (the needle pricks), burn, get cold; warm, dull, sharpen, smell, smell, rancid, sour, salt, sweeten.

Division into parts:   split, disassemble, cut, saw, chop, chop, crack, break, scatter, spill.

Description of the item and its comparison with another item. Description of a large blackboard by position, by shape, by color, by the substance of which it is made, by other qualities and by its purpose. A blackboard stands against us against the wall; it is quadrangular, black, wooden, solid, large, heavy; it is written in chalk, showing a lesson to the whole class. Similarity   it with an aspid board: both are quadrangular, both are black, they are written on both. Difference from a blackboard: a blackboard is large, a small black; heavy blackboard; aspid light; classroom-wooden, slate - stone; on the classroom they write in chalk, on the aspid - stylus; classroom - one for the whole class, every student has aspidine. Here the teacher is still beginning to accustom to comparisons; he makes only a few comparisons and descriptions in order to do this with his students when grouping objects. So, he can still describe and compare: stylus and pencil, window and door, table and chair or bench. Let us give an example of a window description. The window is in the room, in the wall, which is to our left; it consists of a frame and glass (or two frames that open together); glass is smaller than the frame; there are several glasses in the frame; and glass, and the frame is quadrangular; the frame is white, painted with white paint, wooden, glass transparent; the window is made to be light in the room. Similarities with the door: both the window and the door are in the wall, both things serve as a hole in the house, both are quadrangular, both have wood, both are solid. Difference: a window in the middle of the wall, the door reaches the floor; a window serves for light; a door for entry; in the window of glass, in the door there are none; in the frame window, in the door are solid boards; a lock is attached to the door to enter from the outside; in the window, only from the inside, a hook or bolt.

Despite the variety that a teacher can give to all these conversations, they would tire the students if they did this all the time throughout the lesson.

The teacher can distribute time in approximately this way:

• 1. The first 20 minutes - a visual conversation.
• 2. The next 10 minutes is a repetition of what was passed in the conversation.
• 3. The next 5 or 10 minutes are gymnastic movements.
• 4. The rest of the time: showing pictures combined with a story, or consciously learning songs. Sufficient material for this can be found in my "Russian ABCs" and "Book for the initial reading", as well as in Ushinsky's "Native Word", in the "Book for Reading" by Rezenera and Volkov, and so on. The teacher chooses for this the shortest and easiest stories and reports them verbally, without the help of a book.

Live speech is all the more necessary. For children, the development of imagination, imagination, the development of moral feelings and exercise in a coherent presentation of thoughts is especially important here. Stories should be directed towards this.

Grouping items. The above exercises can be completed by the time students start reading light stories in alphabetical order. In our alphabet (“Russian alphabet”), the first conversation serves to briefly repeat what is learned in these initial conversations. In further conversations in our alphabet, the teacher will find a grouping of subjects in the following order:

A. Nature: 1) Animals that can be found in the yard. Pets:   chickens, goose, duck; goat, pig; dog and cat; horse and cow. 2) Wild animals.Wild four-legged animals: wolf, bear, fox, squirrel and hare. Wild birds:   large predatory, swamp, singing; migratory birds. Their comparison with home. 3) Insects:   grasshopper, dragonfly, butterfly, bee, mosquito, cockroach, fly. Items animate and inanimate.   Field and forest, garden and cornfield. Flowersgrowing in the field; the treesgrowing in the forest; vegetables, bread plants. 4) Spring, summer, autumn   and winter. The sun   and month. Wind.

5) Stones:   cobblestone, flint, limestone, asp. Sand, clay, chalk, lime. Earth:   sandy, clayey, chernozemic. Metals:   iron, copper, tin, silver, gold. Copper and silver coins. 6) Fire   and water.   The phenomenon of fire, various waters. Lake, swamp, stream, river, sea. The concept about nature. Natural   and artificial   items.

B. Man and his properties. 1) Parts of the human body:   head, chest and back, stomach, arms, legs. Parts of the head:eyes, ears, nose, tongue, teeth. Five senses:   sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste. Mind and speech.   2) As a person uses his abilities   to your advantage? Housing and its device. Food with   vegetable gardens, fields and from animals. clothing   from field plants, from domestic and wild animals. Guns for   various works. Tools used in some crafts. Household and agricultural implements. Items made from clay and iron. Tableware   made of wood, clay, glass, cast iron, iron and copper. Items used for riding. 3) Skill   and ineptitudein business. The science, doctrine. Moral   human qualities: virtues and vices.

Before each department, in our alphabet there are short stories, proverbs, riddles, poems, etc., which introduce into the circle of objects about which there should be a conversation.

These articles are quite light in content and can be read without many explanations before the conversation, to which each series is adapted. The first series of exercises and most of the articles of the second and third row have the same meaning in the “Book for the initial reading”. Where the “Native Word” is introduced, it’s exactly the same way you can use the grouping of objects presented in this book, only slightly changing it according to the purpose, which we will now indicate. In our alphabet from the very presentation of the conversations it is already clear what they should be directed to, and here we will give only some explanations. Firstly, do not think that we have assigned each conversation in the alphabet for one lesson. Just as not everything can be read in one lesson that precedes the conversation, so the teacher himself can divide the conversation into two, into three lessons: in our division, we only wanted to indicate the categories that we should dwell on. Secondly, we must remember that here only the grouping is already objects known to children   not a detailed explanation of them. You are not teaching almost anything new to children here, but only bring into consciousness and order that which they have already learned from direct observation. Therefore, the circle of subjects should be limited as much as possible (which we did), and in their very choice they should be guided by the instructions of the students: each time you ask what they know in one or another circle of phenomena, and then what they know, you do not go, because for the first time your goal is only to establish children's concepts, and not to enrich with new information. Of course, where there is enough time, the teacher will also point out objects that are less familiar or completely unfamiliar, in connection with those that are known to children (in villages - on the urban setting, in cities - on village tools and works, presenting models, drawings and etc.), but here we are only talking about the main purpose of the conversation.

We believe that from our exposition this goal is already quite clear; but some may still doubt: why teach   children of what they know? Why, for example, ask them what is made of stone, what is of wood, to seek an answer from them that the chicken has wings, and the horse has four legs, when you still don’t mean any new   knowledge? Such questions are usually asked by persons who knowingly or unconsciously, according to the old custom, with the word teach   connect the concept of memorization. We caution teachers who have not completely gotten rid of this custom, that, turning both the preliminary conversations and the classes indicated here into studies of this kind, they completely destroy all their significance. Here, children are completely free to express their observations and knowledge, and the teacher is only their interlocutor who knows how to pose questions so that their knowledge is expressed more diverse and fuller. As for the new knowledge, in the first year (we recall that we are talking about the conversations of the first year), children already quite acquire them in the lessons of writing, reading, arithmetic. This is their main occupation; for conversations, we assign only four lessons per week. On them you give children an opportunity to clarify the information that they already have. In this way you will learn the degree of their development and together lay a solid foundation for their further success. Firstly, it cannot be said that the simple concepts involved in these conversations were clearly understood by children outside the school: you will always have to add something new to the known. However, having children who are more developed, a reasonable teacher, of course, will accelerate these classes, dwell on issues that are more difficult, for example, it will take more time to compare and describe subjects. In any case, he will have to exercise a lot in the language, but not in the sense of developing children's eloquence, but in teaching the exact use of words. Children may know the word and not know with accuracy the concept they mean, as is often the case with words learned firsthand from memory; they may know the subject and not know the word, or at least not firmly recall it; finally, they can know both the subject and the word, but it is wrong to combine them, it is unclear to represent their relationship. It is of primary importance that in all these cases, while practicing the language, the children talk about objects that are close and familiar to them. Secondly, the logical setting of concepts is equally important. Children, of course, judge logically, but their judgments are fragmentary and incoherent, and in general are such that no lasting knowledge can be built on these judgments. Providing them with this for themselves (that is, rather teaching them to read and then let them acquire the necessary information from books themselves) means to make them self-taught, that is, to allow randomness and arbitrariness, and even the most talented person does not always go on the right track. Without a doubt, a rural boy may know more about animals, birds, and other natural phenomena close to him than his teacher, even having completed the full course of natural sciences at the university; but what of this? His knowledge nevertheless remains barren and does not in the least save him from even the most crude superstitions. So, it’s not the quantity of knowledge that matters here, but their internal connection, and all power lies in that method, in the method, by which we assimilate and put them in order. In all knowledge, we distinguish two sides: observation   and conclusion.For completeness and accuracy of observation, it is necessary to know those sides around which various properties of objects are grouped (material, form, purpose, etc.), and be able to? ”To distinguish between essential and random in these properties. For the conclusion, it is necessary to compare objects according to their characteristics, so that through the coincidence of these signs they reach a well-known generalizing thought. (Chicken, goose, hawk, swallow have wings: this birds.   In houses, sheds, stables, walls, the floor is quadrangular; buckets, glasses, bottles, plates, round pots. Therefore in buildings   we usually find the form quadrangular   and triangular   in the dishes - form round.)   Doing this properly, the teacher, so to speak, once again goes with the children the path by which they initially acquired knowledge, but now this path is illuminated with a new light and leads to a common, definite goal. The new thing here is the logical thread connecting the scattered grains of concepts, the assimilation of the first logical steps along which concepts rise from the particular to the general. This is the beginning of the method, without which knowledge is completely fruitless. A consistent method of climbing from the particular to the general, from observation to conclusion, should be carried out in all subjects of elementary education. It is important not only because it contributes to the thorough assimilation of knowledge, but also by itself. Suppose even that in a different way, children would rather learn literacy, arithmetic, and so on. But here it is not a matter of speed at all. Learning sequentially, children imperceptibly assimilate the very method of learning, and this is the first, most important, most necessary of all the knowledge they acquire.

Let us turn now to the system of grouping objects that we have outlined and regarding it we note the following. After the children practiced on the objects in the room, we take them to the yard, indicate what can be found in the yard. Moreover, we do not at all believe that in such a purely external way it is possible to expand the circle of concepts: objects found in the yard, in the field, in the forest, can be more understandable children (especially rural children who spend most of the time in the air) than objects in the room: it all depends on which sides you pay attention to, and talking about dishes, about a dress, about parts of the house can be much it’s more difficult to talk about pets, about the field and the forest, about the weather and so on. What is close to the child does not need to be understood only in the sense of material proximity, but as close to his concepts (the chair on which the child sits every day is very close to him, however, explaining the shape and arrangement of the chair is no easier than, for example, explaining, that if you crush a stone, sand will come out, that there is a root, a trunk and lysgy in the tree, etc.). We take the child out to the yard to start grouping objects with pets- Where he will observe them, of course, all the same: the only thing is that he knows them. The teacher asks which of the animals at the house he is familiar with and also how they differ. The student indicates the few differences that are known to him in the form of these animals, in their habits, in the food they eat, in the benefits they bring. For example, when asked what the hen and the duck, the goat and the cow are not like each other, it’s quite enough if he says: “The hen picks up litter and looks for grains, and the duck swims in water and eats what it finds in water; the duck's nose is so thick; the goat is small and the cow is large; cow mooing: moo   and the goat: be-e;the cow gives milk. " Maybe, with some reminder from the teacher, he will say more; the teacher, accustoming a little to observation, will probably give the class the following lesson: “Look at such and such animals at home and think how one is similar to the other and how one differs from the other; we will see which of you will notice more. ” Recall that here everything should be known from visual observations. Items that children have not seen should be shown to them in nature or, in extreme cases, in the picture (falcon, crane, heron); about those objects that they know well, also recall from the pictures. Otherwise, it’s better not to talk about the subject. But more complete and comprehensive observations under the guidance of a teacher are assigned for the next course; here it’s enough to take advantage of the knowledge already acquired before school. The teacher here only on occasion will highlight permanent, significant signs from random. For example, if a child says: “Our cow is black”, then he will pay attention to the fact that not all cows are black, but, for example, all have a tail, four legs, horns. Here the teacher, where necessary, applies to the case the previously learned concepts about the properties of objects, paying attention to their shape, position, color, purpose, and so on. Signs should be noted a little, but quite characteristic and with possible accuracy. Talking about pets makes it possible to distinguish tetrapods from birds; while the teacher will point to the third category - fish which the child, of course, happened to see. There are only a few differences: the four-legged walks on the ground, gives birth to living cubs; the fish swims in water, but cannot live on the earth. Further, we will not set out in detail what to pay attention to: from these explanations, the teacher could understand the essence of such conversations. Subsequently, in few ways, domestic animals are compared to wild ones (wild ones live in forests, run away from a person, cause harm to him, but there is also benefit from them ... what? - we get skin and fur from them). The difference between the wild is brief: the wolf is terrible with its teeth, the bear is paws, the bear is bigger and stronger than the wolf and so on. We distinguished between wild birds, marshes, and songbirds between wild birds, because these differences are quite sharp and may be familiar to the child without special explanations (the difference in animals’s teeth, the structure of their beak and paws belongs to the second course). We meet wild animals in the forest, in the field, and naturally a brief conversation about the field follows. Here we, firstly, end the grouping of animals, mentioning insects and for the sake of completeness of the system - about amphibians (frog), about crayfish and spiders. The difference between insects is that they are very small, with a body dissected into segments, and have six legs; cancer lives much more in water, but it is not like a fish or a frog that jumps on the ground and has four legs in total, and not ten legs, like cancer (cancer has five pairs of legs, the front pair with ticks); the spider differs from insects especially in that it has eight legs and arranges a web for catching flies. However, if these details can be confusing, then confine ourselves to mentioning the frog and insects. Further in the conversation, we move from animals to plants, which is why we need to find out what an inanimate object is. Mentioning the various fruits, the teacher can dwell on the difference between a vegetable garden, a plowed field, a hay field, a garden, a fruit garden and a wild forest. The children find out the difference between grasses and trees among themselves briefly. The grass is small, the tree is large; the grass has a weak stalk, the tree has a strong trunk; grass goes to feed livestock, a hut is built from a tree. Spruce and pine needles; the spruce branches above are shorter, longer down; the birch has a white trunk, roundish, to the end sharp leaves with notches and so on. It would be nice if the children here learned to distinguish trees by the shape of leaves: having stocked dried leaves, the teacher could give them a drawing lesson to outline the outline of the sheet, laying it on paper. Children distinguish flowers by color and partly by shape, vegetables by size, shape and partly by taste, bread plants by type of grains and ears (the teacher can bring samples of grains and dry ears to the class). The child knows that the plants bloom in spring and wither again by winter: insects also disappear in the fields by winter and come with spring. These changes are so pronounced that the natural connection of phenomena has to talk about the seasons. In this case, the teacher is given the opportunity to find out and measure the time, give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe hour, day, week, year. He teaches children to use the watch as well. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe seasons is inextricably linked with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe sun, of the wind (strong and weak winds, warm and cold). Further, in the order of objects, we will talk about the fossil kingdom: about stones and metals. It’s convenient to show these objects in the classroom, so that for the first time, children will at least find out the difference in color, gloss and hardness. It would be nice to have sharp pieces of stones and metals so that children, scribbling one another, could find out what is harder: if one thing scratches another, then it is harder. (Here you can compare other things: what is harder, bone or wood? Flint or iron? Wood or paper? Stylus or glass? When scribbling, you do not need to press hard: if you rub it hard, then, perhaps, you can leave a mark on the iron with a tree. ) From the stones it’s enough to show: cobblestone (granite), flint, clay stone (slate, dark gray, layered), limestone (whitish), sandstone (in whetstones), slate, marble (if any). If an opportunity presents itself, one can also show gems: otherwise it is better not to talk about them. In exchange for this, let the students examine a piece of coal, sulfur, potash, etc. The student will say a little about the lands: the sandy ground is dry, loose; clay - viscous; on clay or sand alone everything grows poorly, black earth is fertile. When talking about metals, the teacher introduces coins. In connection with conversations about fossil objects, there is the following conversation: about fire and water. In the stories preceding this and that conversation, some works are mentioned where fire and water are involved. These natural phenomena and is a series of conversations about nature. Here we briefly explain the concept of nature and the difference between natural and artificial objects. Next, we move on to man and the grouping of all objects related to man. Most naturally, first we are talking about parts of the human body (the teacher indicates the form, position and purpose of these parts) and the five senses (their use). In addition to the ABC articles, proverbs and riddles placed in the “Book for the initial reading” (second and third series of exercises) can serve here. In connection with other human abilities, language and speech are mentioned. After a conversation about a person’s abilities, it’s natural to have a conversation about how a person thought of how to arrange a home, find all kinds of food, make clothes. The grouping of these objects in the place indicated by us is of particular importance, because we are talking about the mind and art and about the work of man. Thus, the advantages of his nature are clarified and it becomes possible to point to his highest moral purpose. Since previous conversations are already preparing for the present, it’s possible here to go into some details regarding consumption, what kind of person makes of various natural objects (what’s bastion? What’s flax? ?). In connection with these or other works, the concept of tools is also being clarified. Finally, the use of various utensils and different modes of transportation is one of the important amenities of life. We separated the interpretation of the dishes from the conversation about food, because here the main thing is the use of objects of the kingdom of the fossil (iron, copper, clay, sand for glass, etc.). We intentionally did not give at the beginning of the grouping of objects from home life, because at first it would be unsystematic and incoherent or would require more difficult conversations about the abilities of a person in general. But household items: furniture, dishes, etc. - are very convenient for explaining the various properties in objects; in preliminary conversations, they are grouped by various properties: by color, by shape, by material, by purpose, and so on. In this case, the student, of course, brings to consciousness a lot of what we have just mentioned; but nevertheless there is still no grouping according to which household objects would be included in a certain circle of phenomena.

Further conversations lead to finding out how to get to work with the ability and how the skill is given by science and, finally, the most important moral qualities of a person. The connection with the previous conversations is clear here: having the ability to turn all the objects of nature in his favor, a person for his happiness must properly and conscientiously take up all matters and act together so that others can live well in the world. Moral qualities, however, are clarified not only here, but on occasion and in all previous conversations, which is given by the proverbs placed in us, stories, poems. Finally, the clarification of moral principles belongs to religion as a special subject of teaching, which will be discussed later.

Here, conversations serve as a repetition of what has been read before and provide a variety of material that serves both mental exercises and the development of a sense of beauty. Therefore, a whole lesson can be devoted to conversation with only a short break for gymnastic exercises. The teacher should not rush into these conversations, giving in each lesson what students can learn by looking at their abilities. An approximate distribution of classes may be this.

• 1. The first 20 minutes, the teacher recalls what has been read and explained before about this or that subject, preparing for the group. At the same time, he points to real objects and pictures, figuring out the similarity and difference of objects in the most important signs (these instructions, made earlier when reading, are repeated here in greater connection).
• 2. Follow 5 minutes of gymnastic exercises.
• 3. The next 20 or 25 minutes there is a grouping of objects indicating their main differences, and the teacher forces the children to repeat the exact definitions made (cow, horse, dogs - four-legged animals; chicken, duck, goose, swallow - birds; perch, pike, ruff - fish) and also asks for a breakdown (swallow - which animal? Pike - which? Put in order the following items: goose, dog, perch, cat, duck, pike, etc.) or, having said several signs, he makes you guess the name (rakes litter - who? Digs its face - who? Viet back feet - who?).
• 4. The last 10 minutes he will use to repeat or sing one of the learned poems ...

In conclusion, we consider it necessary to note that the time distribution indicated here, as in other cases, in the lessons we do not consider to be immutable and unchanging. Here we did not want to impose any dead system on the teacher, but only wanted to demonstrate that in class, some order was needed, which, of course, could change many times at the request of a practitioner.