What is the difference between the Arctic and the Antarctic. The difference between the Arctic and the Antarctic

  Probably, most people who have long graduated from school will not immediately be able to give an answer about the difference between the Arctic, Antarctica and the Antarctic - where are they located, and how do they differ?

Many people doubt the main score because of the similarity of names and almost identical climatic conditions.
  We can only say with confidence that there and there is a lot of snow, ice and icebergs.

What are the similarities between the Arctic, Antarctic and Antarctica

To better understand how they are similar and how they differ, it is worth starting with what these places have in common.

Title

To be more precise, this is not a similarity, but rather a contrast.
  The word "Arctic" is of Greek origin. “Arctos” means “she-bear”. This is due to the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, according to which people navigate in search of the North Star, that is, the main northern landmark.
  The word "Antarctica" was coined recently, or rather in the twentieth century. The history of its origin is not so interesting. The fact is that “Antarctica” is a combination of the two words “anti” and “Arctic”, that is, the part opposite to the Arctic, or the bear.

Climate

Eternal snow and icebergs are the result of harsh climate conditions. This is the second similarity of the above territories.
  However, it is worth noting that the similarity is not entirely complete, since the climate of the Arctic is still milder due to warm currents that go far enough along the northern coast of the continent of Eurasia. Here, the minimum temperature exceeds the minimum temperature of the Antarctic.

What is the difference between the Arctic, Antarctic and Antarctica

The northern polar region of our planet, which is adjacent to the North Pole.
  The Arctic includes the outskirts of two continents - North America and Eurasia.
  The Arctic includes almost the entire Arctic Ocean and many islands in it (except for the coastal islands of Norway).
  The adjacent parts of two oceans - the Pacific and Atlantic - enter the Arctic.
  The average temperature in the Arctic is -34 C.
  The Arctic, for the most part, can be considered a frozen ocean.

Antarctic

This is the southern polar region of our planet. As already mentioned, its name can be translated as "opposite to the Arctic."
  The mainland Antarctica and the adjacent parts of the three oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian along with the islands - enter the Antarctic.
Antarctica is the most severe climatic zone of the Earth. Both the mainland and the nearby islands are covered in ice.
  The average temperature in the Antarctic is -49 C.

Antarctica

Continent, which is located in the southernmost part of the globe.
  Simply put:

Antarctica and Antarctica

1. Antarctica is the mainland. The area of \u200b\u200bthis continent is 14.1 million square meters. km., which puts it in 5th place in terms of area among all the mainland. In this parameter, he overtook only Australia. Antarctica is a deserted continent discovered by the Lazarev – Bellingshausen expedition in 1820.

2. Antarctica is a territory that includes both the mainland of Antarctica itself and all the islands and waters of three oceans adjacent to this mainland - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian. According to foreign scientists who call the Antarctic water area the Southern Ocean, the Antarctic area is about 86 million square meters. km

3. The relief of the Antarctic is much more diverse than the relief of the mainland, which is included in it.

Animals of Antarctica and Antarctica

4. The animal world of the Antarctic is richer than the animal world of Antarctica. More different species of animals live here, including many birds (petrels, albatrosses, skuas) and several species of penguins, including Adelie penguins and large emperor penguins.
  It is also worth noting that in the coastal waters of Antarctica you can find whales, sperm whales, killer whales, and auls.

5. In Antarctica it is forbidden to hunt, fish and carry out any other economic activities.
  In the waters of the Antarctic, you can fish and several marine mammals.

Arctic and Antarctic

1. The Arctic is the extreme north of the Earth.
  Antarctica - the extreme south of the Earth.
  These poles are washed by different oceans, and they also have different borders.

2. The average temperature of the Arctic is higher than the average temperature of the Antarctic.

3. The Arctic consists of a frozen ocean. In summer, most of this ocean thaws.
  Antarctica is the mainland, and its ice does not melt.

4. The area of \u200b\u200bthe Antarctic exceeds the area of \u200b\u200bthe Arctic by more than 2 times.

5. In the Arctic (more precisely beyond the Arctic Circle) people live. There are about 4 million of them.

And in the Antarctic (beyond the Southern Arctic Circle) there is no permanent population. If only scientists working at temporary stations.

6. Part of the Arctic is divided between the "Arctic Five" - \u200b\u200bDenmark, Canada, Norway, Russia and the USA.
  The territory of the Antarctic is not assigned to anyone.

It is cold, dark in the Arctic and Antarctic, and we often think that these two places are almost the same. But they are completely different. A notable difference is that polar bears live only in the Arctic, and penguins live only in the Antarctic.

What is the difference between the Arctic and the Antarctic

The largest Arctic Antarctic differences between the two regions lies in the differences in sea ice.

The sea ice of the Arctic and Antarctic is different due to their differences in geography. The Arctic is a semi-closed ocean, almost completely surrounded by land. Sea ice in the Arctic is not as mobile as sea ice in the Antarctic. Although sea ice moves around the Arctic basin, it remains in the cold Arctic waters. Icebergs are more likely to converge - collide with each other, accumulate in thick hummocks. These converging ice floes make the Arctic ice thicker.

The ice remains frozen longer during the summer melt - the Arctic sea ice persists throughout the summer and continues to grow next fall. Of the 15 million square kilometers (5.8 million square miles) of sea ice existing during winter, an average of 7 million square kilometers (2.7 million square miles) remain at the end of the summer melting season.

Minimum and maximum sea ice coverage in the Arctic and Antarctic
  This satellite data on sea ice concentration shows the average minimum and maximum sea ice area in March and September for the Arctic and Antarctic from 1979 to 2000 - opposite hemispheres - Southern and Northern; The south reaches a summer minimum in February, and the north reaches a summer minimum in September. (March is shown for both hemispheres for consistency.) The dark circles in the center of the images of the Northern Hemisphere are areas deprived of data due to satellite coverage restrictions at the North Pole.

Antarctica is surrounded by the ocean. The open ocean allows the formation of sea ice to move freely, have high drift speeds. Antarctic sea hummocks are much less common than in the Arctic. The lack of a land border in the north allows sea ice to float north to warmer waters, where it eventually melts. As a result, almost all of the sea ice formed during the Antarctic winter melts during the summer.

In winter, up to 18 million square kilometers (6.9 million square miles) of ocean are covered with sea ice, but by the end of summer, only 3 million square kilometers (1.1 million square miles) of sea ice remain.

Sea ice does not accumulate in the Antarctic, as is the case in the Arctic; it does not have the ability to grow like sea ice in the Arctic. Most of the Arctic is covered with sea ice up to 2 - 3 meters thick. The Arctic regions are covered with ice 4 - 5 meters thick.

Antarctic ice is collected approximately symmetrically around the pole, forming a circle of Antarctica. In contrast, the Arctic is asymmetric. For example, sea ice from the east coast of Canada extends south of Newfoundland to 50 degrees north latitude, and ice blocks off the east coast extend to Russian Bohai Bay, about 38 degrees north latitude. Conversely, in Western Europe, the northern coast of Norway, 70 degrees north latitude (2,000 kilometers, or 1,243 miles further north of Newfoundland and Japan) generally remains ice-free. Ocean currents and wind directions can explain these differences.

The Arctic region north of the Atlantic Ocean is open to warmer waters from the south. These warm waters can flow into the Arctic and prevent the formation of sea ice in the North Atlantic. The waters off the eastern shores of Canada and Russia are dependent on cold air moving from the land from the west. Eastern Canada also feeds on cold water currents that make sea ice growth easier.

Since the Arctic Ocean is mostly covered with ice, surrounded by land, rainfall is relatively rare here. Antarctica, however, is completely surrounded by the ocean, so that moisture becomes more accessible. Antarctic sea ice is usually covered with thick snow - the weight of the snow pushes the ice below sea level, resulting in snow flooding the salty waters of the ocean.

Antarctic sea ice does not reach the South Pole, expanding only over an area of \u200b\u200babout 75 degrees south latitude (in the Ross and Weddell Seas), due to Antarctica. However, Arctic sea ice reaches the North Pole. Here, the Arctic sea ice receives less solar energy on its surface, because the rays of the sun fall at a sharper angle, compared to lower latitudes.

The waters of the Pacific Ocean and several rivers in Russia and Canada are provided with fresh, less dense water from the Arctic Ocean. So the Arctic Ocean has a layer of fresh cold water near the surface with warm salt water below. This cold, fresh layer of water allows ice to grow in the Arctic more than in the Antarctic.

* The Arctic is an ocean under an ice shell, surrounded on all sides by the earth

* Antarctica is a continent washed from all sides by water

* People live in the Arctic for the past four centuries

* Antarctica was never inhabited, and the first people reached its shores only 200 years ago

* The fauna of these regions is different, Antarctica leads in the number of inhabitants, and the Arctic in their species diversity.

* The Arctic, it is an abundance of polar birds, walruses, musk oxen and polar bears

* Antarctica, these are giant colonies of penguins, fur seals, as well as many seabirds

* In the polar regions of the earth, the traveler will always meet an abundance of snow of various shades and icebergs of the most bizarre forms

* Travel to the Arctic is possible from June to September

* Months of cruises to Antarctica: October - March.

The Arctic and Antarctic, the two poles North and South, unknown, lost at the ends of the world and invariably attracting the interest of all mankind. Numerous large and small heroic expeditions were equipped to learn the secrets of the universe; some daredevils went to this, trying to conquer and unravel the mysterious corners of planet Earth. And in our time, years after the first expeditions, already open to the world and science, the Arctic and Antarctica, these kingdoms of blinding snow and light, millennial ice and icebergs, silence, cold, and unsolved riddles, continue to attract not only researchers, scientists but also numerous tourists from all over the world. The modern capabilities of the tourism infrastructure allow everyone to choose the direction within the cruise: the Arctic or Antarctic, route, duration, dates and go on an exciting journey.

The polar regions of our planet are one of the last corners of the wild, not affected by human activity and therefore they can be considered the cleanest. These ecosystems are distinguished by unique features and interactions and therefore require special protective measures. The natural and climatic environment of the polar regions is one of the most exceptional, poorly studied and harsh on planet Earth, characterized by extreme temperatures, a lot of snow, ice and icebergs, as well as permafrost, and yet the Arctic and Antarctic are rich in living and inanimate natural resources .

With significant similarities between the Arctic and the Antarctic, there are fundamental differences between them: political, geographical and natural. And, probably, the basis of the differences can be seen primarily in the fact that Antarctica is a continent, and the Arctic is a partially frozen ocean, the ice cover of which is formed by glaciers, sea ice and icebergs. Sea ice covers the surface of the Arctic Ocean for 8-15 million square kilometers, with an average thickness of about three meters.

The sixth continent on our planet - Antarctica, is surrounded by the ocean. Antarctica slightly resembles the Arctic Ocean with its outlines. Antarctica is very different from all other continents. It is the coldest, windiest, driest, highest continent on the Planet. The surface of Antarctica is 99 percent covered by an ice sheet, which on average rises 2500 meters above sea level. The total amount of ice in Antarctica is 91 percent of the global ice reserves. If all the ice of Antarctica melted, the total sea level would rise by 60 meters. For comparison, the largest ice mass in the Arctic is the Greenland ice sheet, and if all Greenland ice melts, the sea level will rise by 7 meters.

Antarctica is similar to all other continents with a complex relief - mountain structures, plains and deep depressions, but this could be seen if the entire ice cover was removed from this continent.

An important difference between Antarctica and other continents is the complete absence of state borders and a resident population. This continent does not belong to any state; nobody lives there permanently. Antarctica is a continent of peace and cooperation.

In Antarctica there are no permanently inhabiting terrestrial vertebrates, but for the purpose of breeding it is visited by large populations of seabirds and seals, which spend most of the time in the ocean surrounding Antarctica. In the summer, in the waters of Antarctica you can meet toothed and smooth whales. The lands and ices of the sixth continent are home to 45 species of nesting birds, but 85 percent of the entire biomass of Antarctic seabirds are penguins.

There is no native population in Antarctica, nevertheless, the number of scientists temporarily living here, employees of year-round research stations is constantly growing, as is the number of tourists.

The northern polar region of our land, including the Arctic Ocean and its seas, as well as the Canadian archipelago, with its many bays and straits, the Northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans, Greenland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, New and Northern lands, Novosibirsk islands and islands Wrangel, as well as the northern coasts of the continents of Eurasia and North America form the Arctic.

In most arctic regions there are no trees, but pine, spruce and birch forests grow in some of its regions. Typical tundra vegetation consists of sedges, lichens and dwarf trees.

The fauna of the Arctic has its own characteristics - the limited species composition and the abundance of individuals of each species. Representatives of the wildlife of the Arctic region are reindeer, musk ox, polar bears, polar wolves, hares, arctic foxes, lemmings and others. The polar seas abound in beluga whales, narwhals, seals and walruses.

In many areas of the Arctic, people appeared more than 10 thousand years ago. Most recently, the northern regions of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and Greenland were populated.

The population of the Arctic consists of indigenous and alien residents who are carriers of different cultural traditions. The most homogeneous group of aborigines living in the American Arctic. It mainly consists of Eskimos, or Inuit (as they call themselves in Canada and Greenland).

In northern Alaska, the Eskimo population predominates, but many visitors are employed in the oil fields. In the far north of Eurasia, the indigenous population is the Sami in northern Scandinavia and Finland, the Nenets in the north and the Chukchi in northeast Russia. The traditional occupations of the peoples of the North are hunting, fishing, reindeer husbandry.

The Arctic and Antarctic, mysterious lands crowned with glaciers, dazzlingly shining in the rays of the sun - seas covered with ice or floating icebergs have long attracted travelers. Nowadays, it is possible, within the framework of the chosen Antarctic or Arctic cruise, to join the secrets of the universe, listen to the silence, feel the magnetism and energy of these places with unbelievable beauty of landscapes. The companions in your travels will be polar birds, and depending on the chosen direction, numerous penguin colonies, or polar bears appearing on ice floes.

The concepts of Antarctica and Antarctica are very consonant. Both objects of comparison are located in the extreme south of the Southern hemisphere of the Earth and are strongly associated with the kingdom of cold, snow and ice. It is interesting, but by the end of the 7th grade, that is, upon completion of the study of the course “physical geography of the continents”, a significant part of the students of the comprehensive school cannot clearly explain the difference between Antarctica and Antarctica and use these terms for their intended purpose.

Definition

Antarctica- this is the mainland. It has an area of \u200b\u200b14.1 million km². According to this parameter, he takes the "honorable" 5th place, overtaking only the crumb Australia. Antarctica bears the title of “Queen of the Cold”, “Deserted Continent” and “Edge of the Earth”. It was discovered by the Lazarev – Bellingshausen expedition in 1820.

Antarctic- This is the territory of the mainland of Antarctica, plus all the adjacent islands and coastal ocean waters. Most scientists limit the Antarctic distribution area to the West Winds. In non-Russian-speaking countries, this water area is called the Southern Ocean and covers an area of \u200b\u200babout 86 million km².

Comparison

A feature of Antarctica is its ice shell, or shield. It contains frozen 80% of all fresh water on our planet. The average height of the ice shell is 2040 meters, but in some places it rises to 4500 meters. Thanks to him, Antarctica is considered the highest continent on Earth. In addition to the mainland covered with an ice shroud, the Antarctic also includes 13 seas. For example - the Sea of \u200b\u200bLazarev, Cosmonauts, Weddell, Amundsen and Bellingshausen. A lot of archipelagos “float” in them. The most famous of them are Kerguelen, South Orkney and Shetland Islands.

The structure of the mainland of Antarctica is very interesting. It is based on the Antarctic platform - a quarter of the once split Gondwana, the blood brother of Australia, Africa and South America. If you remove the ice skin from the mainland, you can see the plains and mountains. Although the Transantarctic mountains and the Vinson massif managed to break through to the surface without exposure, the local volcano Erebus spits with fire and actively spews lava, which is considered one of the most active volcanoes on the planet. But due to the enormous mass of ice, this continent in many places has a somewhat “squeezed” appearance, like an old sofa. Therefore, a significant part of the earth's crust is below the level of the oceans and is -2341 meters. The underwater relief adjacent to the mainland of the Southern Ocean is more diverse. Here, an alternation of ups and downs is recorded. The average depth of 13 sea lodges-depressions is 3500 meters, but there is also a deep-water Sandwich trench, reaching 8325 m.

The climate of Antarctica is considered one of the harshest. Because of the ice sheet, it is constantly cold here. At least -89.2 ° C in the center of the mainland. In January, the coastal temperature fluctuates around 0 ° C. 176 days a year winds rush over the mainland, the speed of which exceeds 30 m / s. It is very dry, and rare precipitation falls only in the form of snow. Over the aquatic part of Antarctica, cold stock winds from the mainland reign, but the air temperature in the northernmost regions can rise to 10 ° C. Ice shelves — Ross, Ronne — are sliding into the water from the mainland; icebergs float across the water and pose a danger to travelers.

Antarctic waters are characterized by strong transparency, low salinity and a high oxygen content, which is why there is a lot of plankton and krill in them. He in turn attracts fish and blue whales. There are so many fish that it is enough for penguins, and for the mass of birds, and for toothed whales, and for seals and seals. Orcas hunt for the latter. On the mainland, the animal world is limited and confined to the coastal strip. These are penguins, cormorants, petrels and Dominican gulls.

All industrial activity is prohibited in Antarctica. Only scientists from those countries work between them, between which the mainland is divided into sectors. In the waters of the Antarctic, whaling and fishing fleets of those countries that have the opportunity to engage in such business are hunted.

Website conclusions

1. The concept of Antarctica is broader. Antarctica covers a larger area than Antarctica.
2. The relief of Antarctica is more diverse than the relief of Antarctica.
3. The temperature amplitude is greater in Antarctica than in Antarctica, but the mainland itself is much colder than the waters of the Southern Ocean.
4. The animal kingdom of Antarctica is represented by a large number of species and the number of animals.
5. In Antarctica, any economic activity is prohibited, and the waters of the Antarctic are a place of fishing for fish and marine mammals on a global scale.

ANTARCTIC
  southern polar region of the Earth. Unlike the Arctic, which is an ocean surrounded by land, Antarctica is the mainland, together with the surrounding southern regions of the oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian (sometimes all these parts of the oceans are called the Southern Ocean). Mainland Antarctica with an area of \u200b\u200bapprox. 14 million square meters km - the world's largest cold desert, where concentrated approx. 70% of the world's fresh water reserves, but all of it in a frozen state is enclosed in a huge ice sheet. Although the underlying subglacial surface is located at a small height above sea level, and in some places below it, due to the thick ice sheet, the average absolute height of the surface of Antarctica (approx. 2000 m) is the maximum among the continents.

(in detail)

  Antarctica is the most isolated and the only continent that does not have an indigenous population. In summer, the number of temporary residents is probably approx. 4000 people, in winter - 1500 people. No one has lived here for more than 18 months. Almost all of Antarctica is located south of the South Polar Circle (66 ° 33 "S), which is 2600 km away from the South Pole. The South Polar Circle is the border to the south of which the Sun does not rise above the horizon during the winter solstice (June 21) and does not go beyond the horizon during the summer solstice (December 21) .In the direction of the pole, the duration of the polar day and polar night increases, reaching at the South Pole in both cases six months. In Antarctica, only the Antarctic Peninsula go beyond the limits of the Southern Polar Circle, extending go almost to the southern tip of South America, and some capes are on the opposite side of the mainland.In two places the coastline of the mainland extends far to the south, forming the Ross Sea in the Pacific and the Weddell Sea in the Atlantic sectors.
Physical geography. Zoning sushi. Antarctica is divided into two large parts, significantly differing in geological structure and relief features. East Antarctica occupies most of the mainland and has the shape of an almost regular semicircle. On land, it is bordered by the Transantarctic mountains, stretching from Cape Adair to Cotts Land. East Antarctica lies between approximately 170 ° East and 30 ° W Western Antarctica has a much smaller area, and a significant part of it occupies the Antarctic Peninsula. The following areas are located west of the Greenwich Meridian (0 °). Between 10 ° and 35 ° W Cotts Land extends. In the southern part of the Weddell Sea, there are Icehner and Ronne ice shelves adjacent to the Edith Ronne Land. West of this region is between 60 ° and 110 ° W lies the land of Elsuert. In this sector there are many individual mountain peaks - nunataks, towering above the ice surface, and the highest point of Antarctica - the Vinson massif (4897 m) is confined to the Sentinel ridge. Antarctic Peninsula is located east of Elsworth Land, and Mary Bird Land is west. West of the Earth, Mary Byrd extends the vast Ross Ice Shelf, which overlooks the Ross Sea. The Antarctic Peninsula and Mary Bird Land represent a separate region of Antarctica, as the bottom of the ice sheet between the Ronne and Ross glaciers is bent below sea level. If all the ice had melted here, Mary Byrd’s Land would separate from the rest of Antarctica. To the west of the Ross Sea is Victoria Land, a region of majestic glaciers descending to the sea from mountains 3000–4500 m high. Wilks Land, located between 150 ° and 90 ° E, occupies about 1/5 of the total area of \u200b\u200bAntarctica. Here, ice and ice shelves impede the movement of research teams. In the sea off the coast opposite Wilkes Land is the South Magnetic Pole. Its approximate coordinates are 65 ° S and 140 ° east Quadrant between 0 ° and 90 ° East includes Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mc Robertson Beach and American Upland. The Antarctic seas of Ross, Weddell, Bellingshausen and Amundsen have convenient, well-sheltered approaches to the mainland.
Ice sheet and sea ice.
Antarctica is an ice continent where about 30 million km3 of ice is concentrated, or 90% of all land ice. The average ice thickness is 2500-2800 m, and the maximum in some areas of East Antarctica is 4800 m. The highest ice surface in East Antarctica exceeds 4100 m above sea level. Only 2% of Antarctica is ice-free - mainly in the western part of the mainland and the Transantarctic mountains. This is either sections of the coast, or individual ridges and peaks (nunataki), towering above the ice surface. The ice sheet is generally dome-shaped, and the steepness of the surface increases towards the coast, where the ends of the outlet glaciers and ice shelves or ice ledges are concentrated. In places of calving of icebergs, ice consumption is estimated at 2500 km3 per year. Antarctic icebergs are striking in their record size for the Earth. For example, one of them, formed in the early 1990s, reached a length of 154 km, and a width of 35 km. Antarctic ice accumulated over many hundreds of thousands of years, and they capture the history of the formation of the earth's atmosphere. Three deep wells were drilled in Antarctica: at Byrd station in 1968 with a depth of 2160 m, at Vostok station in 1991 at a depth of 2600 m and on the coast of East Antarctica at Low-Dom station in 1993 at a depth of 1200 m. In summer, the ice sheet increases by 3-4 million sq. km due to the expansion of ice shelves, especially around the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Ross Sea. In winter, the ocean around Antarctica freezes. In this way, sea ice forms on an area of \u200b\u200bapprox. 17 million square meters km, which melt in late spring - early summer.
Geology.
East Antarctica is an ancient craton, the rocks of which on Enderby Earth formed almost 4 billion years ago. The surface of the crystalline basement, which lies mainly at a low altitude, is laid out. The age of the basement rocks, as a rule, ranges from 2.5-2.8 billion years. The foundation was formed during several major stages of orogenesis, which was reflected in the composition and structure of the constituent rocks. About 1.1-1.4 billion years ago in East Antarctica the formation of granites occurred through the introduction and eruption of molten magma. After the foundation was formed, sedimentation took place for a long time in marine and continental conditions. The main sedimentary suite (Beacon group) includes a variety of rocks that make up the picturesque peaks and rocky slopes of the Transantarctic mountains. Many of these rocks formed 350-190 million years ago and contain fossil remains of plants and animals, including dinosaurs and amphibians (for example, Lystrosaurus). This indicates that the natural environment of that time was very different from modern ones, although the South Pole was then either on the territory of Antarctica itself or near it. Glacial deposits are most typical for the period 320-280 million years ago, when Antarctica first moved to the polar region. A major geological event that completed the period of formation of the Beacon group rocks was the intrusion of a huge mass of gray rock dolerite. Similar rocks were also found in Tasmania and other areas that were once part of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. West Antarctica as a whole is a younger and more dissected area with significant elevations above sea level. For example, the Sentinel ridge with its tower-like peaks consists of separate blocks, some of which arose during the mountain-building stage associated with the decay of Gondwana, and others - during the immersion of the plate in the southeastern Pacific Ocean under the Antarctic Peninsula. The formation of many rocks is associated with volcanic activity, the maximum activity of which occurred in the period 180-110 million years ago. The hypothesis of the existence of an ancient vast supercontinent, which included Antarctica, was confirmed by the discovery of a sample with prints of an ancient fossil plant from the river. Glossopteris, characteristic of Gondwana flora (this sample was discovered in Robert F.'s tent Scott, who died on the way back from the South Pole in 1912). The fragmentation of Gondwana was carried out in several stages, which are well studied. Africa and South America began to separate simultaneously with the formation of the Atlantic Ocean about 130 million years ago. India stood out a little later, about 120 years ago. The last to separate Australia and New Zealand - approx. 86 million years ago. The collapse of Gondwana led to the isolation of Antarctica. An oceanic circulation formed around it, the continent's climate became colder and, accordingly, cover glaciation developed. The modern ice sheet of Antarctica was formed several million years ago. The geological history that preceded the glaciation is reconstructed from the results of a study of many small exposures of bedrock and core samples taken during drilling of the seabed. The data obtained indicate that the continent, on which vegetation grew, akin to the one that is now developing in the humid forests of the temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere (in Tasmania, New Zealand, southern South Africa), has turned into an ice continent. Antarctica is characterized by minimal seismic activity compared to other continents. The first earthquake there was recorded only in 1985. The largest active volcano is Mount Erebus, and other foci of volcanism (on Deception Island and Mount Melbourne) are in a state of temporary rest. Another active volcano is located under the ice sheet of West Antarctica.
Bottom marine sediments.   Precipitation at the bottom of the oceans around Antarctica is divided into two types: biogenic and terrigenous. Biogenic sediments are formed during the deposition of valves and carapace of microorganisms, which live in abundance in the nitrogen-rich surface layers of the ocean water. Terrigenous sediments occur during the melting of ice drifting from the Antarctic, and from the products of cryogenic weathering and erosion on other continents of the Southern Hemisphere. Silicon-containing silts (consisting of silicon remains of diatoms and radiolarians), which mainly accumulate between 55 ° and 60 ° S, are replaced in places by carbonate silts (containing foraminifera residues). Further north, in deep depressions, red-colored clay sediments are found. To the south of the mean long-term boundary of pack ice, ice-marine sediments form.
Sea pools. In the southern polar region, a powerful Antarctic circumpolar current (or the current of the West Winds) stands out, which moves eastward, and its flow rate in the Drake Strait is 130 million m3 of water per second. Closer to the coast of Antarctica stands out Coastal Antarctic Current. It does not follow strictly along the coastline, but deviates north in the western parts of the deep depressions of the Weddell, Ross and Bellingshausen Seas. As a result, the circulation of water in these troughs takes the form of a clockwise circular rotation. Off the coast of East Antarctica, where there are only a few deep bays, the Coastal Antarctic Current is limited to a narrow zone. Significant changes in the temperature and salinity of coastal sea waters are observed when the meridional circulation (from north to south) affects the Antarctic circumpolar and coastal Antarctic currents, which enhances the role of Antarctic waters in the global ocean circulation system. Warm salt waters with a low oxygen content are moving south, rising to the surface. Once in the surface layers of the ocean, they are divided into two cold water masses enriched with oxygen absorbed from the air, which differ in the nature of heat and water exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. One of them remains on the surface and is known as Antarctic surface waters, much less salty compared to deeper layers. Another body of water sinks to the bottom of the ocean and turns into Antarctic bottom waters. By all accounts, they are associated with the formation of sea ice, but perhaps this is the result of the interaction of ocean waters with the base of ice shelves. The movement of bottom - circumpolar - water in the south direction is compensated by the outflow to the north of the Antarctic deep and Antarctic surface waters, which sink in the zone of the Antarctic circumpolar current and form the Antarctic intermediate waters. Further to the north, the Antarctic components gradually transform, and these waters eventually return to the Antarctic latitudes in the form of circumpolar deep waters. They contain a noticeable admixture of relatively more saline deep waters from the South Atlantic. When flowing eastward, these water masses are fully included in the circumpolar circulation. About 55-60% are Antarctic surface waters, the rest are Antarctic bottom waters. Circumpolar deep waters bring a large amount of heat to the Antarctic seas, where it is used to heat cold waters and the atmosphere. Antarctic surface waters can be traced to the zone between 50 ° and 60 ° S, where they disappear rather quickly when they encounter less dense subantarctic surface waters, sink below them and take part in the formation of Antarctic intermediate waters, which rush north. The contact area between two surface water bodies is known as the Antarctic convergence zone.
Climate. Antarctica has a decisive influence on the climate of the southern hemisphere. Due to the presence of a low pressure belt around the mainland, the surrounding seas are the most stormy on the globe. North of 60 ° S prevailing westerly winds, often reaching hurricane force. Between 60 ° S and east coasts mostly blow east coast. The speed and frequency of winds in Antarctica are unparalleled in the world. The climate of Antarctica is very cold in winter and less cold in summer. Average summer temperatures do not rise above the freezing point of water. The average annual temperature at the South Pole is -50 ° C. The lowest air temperature, -89.2 ° C, was recorded at the Soviet Vostok station on July 21, 1983. Antarctica is a desert with an average annual rainfall of less than 100 mm. The distribution of precipitation (mainly snow) throughout the continent is uneven: from less than 50 mm in the central part of East Antarctica to more than 600 mm in the north of the Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctica is the mainland of the strongest winds. Stock (kabatic) winds formed due to cooling of the lower layers of air during interaction with the ice sheet are notorious. As a result, the lower layers of the air become denser than the overlying ones, which causes the flow of dense cold air over the surface of the ice sheet in the direction of the coast with a sequential increase in the speed of movement. When crossing mountain ranges and hills, wind speed can reach 320 km / h. In general, the direction and speed of runoff winds are quite constant.
Flora and fauna. Due to the uniqueness of the natural conditions of Antarctica and its prolonged isolation, the flora and fauna are very original. On the mainland there are mosses, lichens, algae, fungi, bacteria, as well as small invertebrates - tardigrades (from arthropods), rotifers (membranous worms) and some wingless insects. In warmer areas in the northwest of the Antarctic Peninsula, several species of herbaceous flowering plants are found. In some places, such as on the Windmill Islands (off the coast of Wilkes Land), mosses and lichens form a dense bright green cover. There are many lakes in Antarctica where unusual microorganisms live, including unique types of algae (blue-green and diatoms), bacteria and flagella. There are no land mammals and freshwater fish in the Antarctic. Of the birds, penguins are most characteristic. Emperor penguin breeds in winter. The remaining species of penguins hatch in the summer on rocky bird markets. Many species of seabirds, particularly petrels and skuas, also nest in rock crevices. In the vast expanses of the sea, microscopic algae form “ocean pastures” and are eaten by animals occupying key positions in the Antarctic ecosystems. The krill populations Euphausia superba (planktonic crustaceans about 50 mm long) are characterized by the greatest abundance. Krill is the main food for whales, penguins, some species of seals and fish. The development of algae and krill is slowed down in winter and significantly accelerated in spring, when light and nutrients become available as a result of melting sea ice, which causes spring "blooming of water." The ocean is the habitat of some species of seals, mainly the crabeater seal, Weddell seal, elephant seal, sea leopard (living in the sea, and breeding on land or on ice), fish and whales. Toothed whales were almost completely exterminated by hunters, but most species (except for the sperm whale) were apparently saved in the early 1990s. The number of minke whales and smooth whales in Antarctic waters was estimated at 760 thousand. The number of killer whales (subfamily of dolphins) is also great. In 1993, the French government proposed transforming the entire Antarctic region south of 40 ° S to the whale reserve. Antarctic fish usually grow slowly and move slowly, but live long. Almost all of them belong to the Notothen family, distributed mainly off the coast of Antarctica. Antarctic waters are also characterized by a small family of white-headed fish, distinguished by colorless blood due to the almost complete absence of red blood cells and hemoglobin in it.
International Antarctic Agreements. Seven countries — Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Norway — claim territorial rights in various parts of Antarctica. After the successful completion of the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), 12 member states (seven of the above, as well as Belgium, Japan, South Africa, the USSR and the USA) agreed on the need for international cooperation in the Antarctic and discussed the terms of the relevant treaty. It was signed in 1959 and entered into force in 1961. According to this document, the Antarctic should not be used for military purposes, any military activity is prohibited there, including nuclear weapons tests and the disposal of radioactive waste. The territorial claims of seven states were settled by a clause of the Treaty on the inadmissibility of any activity aimed at strengthening the position of one country and weakening other countries or that could lead to the emergence of new claims. The states that signed the Antarctic Treaty are divided into two groups: participants in consultative meetings - countries whose consent is necessary for the adoption of an important scientific program, and acceding states that support the basic principles of the Treaty, but whose assistance is not required for its functioning. Consultative meetings take place regularly. In 1993, 26 consultative meetings took place, in which representatives of 14 countries that joined the treaty took part. A series of other documents were signed on the basis of the Antarctic Treaty, including Agreed Measures to Protect Antarctic Fauna and Flora, Convention for the Protection of Antarctic Seals, Convention for the Protection of Antarctic Marine Bioresources, Protocol on the Protection of the Antarctic Environment to the Antarctic Treaty.
Territorial claims.   Seven states make territorial claims on the following sectors of Antarctica: Argentina - between 25 ° and 74 ° W .; Australia - between 45 ° and 136 ° East, and also between 142 ° and 160 ° East; Chile - between 53 ° to 90 ° W .; France - from 136 ° to 142 ° East (Land of Adele); Great Britain - between 20 ° and 80 ° W; New Zealand - between 160 ° East and 150 ° W .; Norway - between 20 ° W and 45 ° east (Queen Maud Land). The territorial claims of Chile, Argentina, and Great Britain to a rather significant sector of Antarctica (between 90 ° and 150 ° W) partially overlap. They cannot be satisfied throughout the duration of the Antarctic Treaty. The United States and Russia have also stated that they have reason for such demands.
Research. The names of the famous Antarctic explorers Roald Amundsen, Robert F. Scott, Ernest Shackleton, Lincoln Elsuert, Richard E. Byrd and Douglas Mawson are forever inscribed in the history of the conquest of this continent. Unlike the latest expeditions, the tasks of which were primarily to obtain detailed information about the Antarctic, most pioneers dreamed of visiting the South Pole. This goal was first achieved by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen on December 14, 1911, 34 days before the captain Robert F. Scott, an officer of the British Navy, was there. However, Scott and his team, having overcome considerable difficulties and died on the way back, also deserve great respect. Eight months later, a search squad discovered a tent with the bodies of expedition members, as well as valuable diaries and collections. Amundsen's second expedition to the Antarctic in 1910-1912 was the culmination of exploration of the South Pole. A little earlier, in 1897-1899, he was an assistant captain on the ship "Belgique" under the command of Adrien de Gerlach. This expedition opens a period of truly scientific exploration of the Antarctic regions. Scott led the British National Expedition, which surveyed the Edward VII Peninsula and spent two winters in 1902-1904 near the McMurdo Strait. In 1899, K. E. Borkhgrevink, the leader of the expedition aboard the Southern Cross ship, landed on ice landfast ice in the Ross Sea. Among other expeditions it should be noted the Swedish 1901-1903 in the sector between 90 ° and 180 ° W, led by Otto Nordenskjöld; Scottish (1903-1904) under the direction of W. S. Bruce, who conducted oceanographic observations, and expeditions of Jean Charcot in 1904 and 1908-1909, exploring the shores of the Antarctic Peninsula. Ernest Shackleton's expedition in 1908 was marked by two significant events - climbing Mount Erebus (3,743 m) and reaching a point only 160 km away from the South Pole. Douglas Mawson was a member of the detachment that climbed Erebus during the Shackleton expedition. Later, he participated in a campaign during which the position of the South magnetic pole was first determined. Mawson wanted to join R. Scott's expedition to the South Pole, but he had to abandon this intention, and he led the Australian Antarctic expedition (1911-1914) to Commonwell Bay on George V Land. The development of aeronautics again aroused interest in Antarctic research. In 1928, G. Wilkins explored the Antarctic Peninsula from an airplane. In 1933-1939, Lincoln Ellsworth aerial explored some of the interior of Antarctica. In 1935, he, together with G. Hollick-Kenyon, made the first transarctic flight. Thanks to these flights, the absence of a strait between East and West Antarctica was established. A lot of new data was collected by members of four American expeditions led by Admiral Richard Byrd.

Byrd expeditions.   The first Antarctic expedition of Richard E. Byrd (1928-1929) on two ships left New York. On January 6, 1929, the Little America base was founded on the Ross Sea shore. In November 1929, Byrd flew over the South Pole. During other flights, previously unknown areas were mapped. During the second expedition (1933-1935), an area of \u200b\u200bmore than 500 square meters was mapped. km, and Byrd spent a single five-month wintering 200 km from the base of Little America, where he was engaged in meteorological observations. Research was continued during the third Antarctic expedition 1939-1940. In December 1946, Byrd’s fourth expedition to the Antarctic set off from the US coast on 13 ships. The expedition members again settled at the base of Little America. They carried out aerial photography of an area of \u200b\u200bapprox. 880 thousand square meters km along the coastline of approx. 8.7 thousand km. During this expedition, new bays, islands, glaciers, plateaus, underwater volcanoes, Antarctic "oases" with salt lakes with a connection to the sea, and nine mountain ranges were discovered.
International Geophysical Year (IGY) in the Antarctic.   Antarctica was the main area for the IGY (July 1, 1957 - December 31, 1958). This continent served as a unique laboratory for the study of geographical, geological, meteorological, oceanographic, glaciological, seismological, the study of auroras, gravity, geomagnetism, physics and chemistry of the upper atmosphere. 12 countries participated in the Antarctic IGY program. The United States organized the first inland research stations, including Amundsen-Scott station at the South Pole. The USSR built several stations in the area of \u200b\u200bthe South Magnetic Pole and in the geographical center the matrix is \u200b\u200bat the “inaccessibility pole”. Great Britain had 16 stations, 11 of which were created in the years leading up to the IGY. Other participants were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway and South Africa.
Fuchs Expedition.   During the Antarctic summer of 1957-1958, the IGY research stations served as bases for a number of transcontinental campaigns. Of greatest interest was the British expedition led by Vivian Fuchs, who first made the transition through the entire mainland. She started from Shackleton Station on the Weddell Sea and finished at Scott Station, located on the opposite end of the mainland, covering a distance of 3473 km.
After MGY. After the successful completion of the IGY and the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, the interest of individual countries in this region has grown significantly. Scientific expeditions received a much more powerful material and technical base, the era of single heroes came to an end, giving way to major expeditions. The duration of the stations has increased, and the capabilities of the search and rescue service have expanded.
Contemporary issues. Global warming. Global warming caused by the "greenhouse effect" is a consequence of an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane and other "greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere, mainly due to the burning of fuel, the death of tropical forests (carbon dioxide), the decomposition of organic matter in rice fields and the release of methane from manure heaps in cattle breeding areas. All these are examples of unforeseen consequences of human activity. If global warming continues, it could lead to melting Antarctic ice. If the ice sheet of Antarctica disappears completely, an increase in the level of the World Ocean by 70 m will occur. Many researchers of the greenhouse effect problem believe that even a slight warming of the climate can lead to an increase in the amount of precipitation in the Antarctic. This, in turn, will cause a decrease in sea level, but it will be more than compensated by the expansion of the volume of ocean waters due to their heating. The rate of sea level rise from 1990 to 2020-2040 is estimated to be 1 mm / year. A decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, leading to the formation of so-called “ozone hole” is another example of the influence of human activity on the state of the Earth’s atmosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons - gases used mainly in refrigeration units and aerosol cans, enter the troposphere, and in the tropics they are carried out to the stratosphere, within which they are transported by air currents to the polar regions, in particular to the Antarctic. There, as a result of chemical reactions at altitudes of 16-32 km, but mainly in the lower part of the "ozone layer", where the concentration of ozone is 1-2 particles per million, ozone is destroyed. Reactions leading to a decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere occur in the Antarctic spring, when heat and light return to the upper atmosphere after a long cold winter. Reactions that occur on the surface of the smallest ice crystals in about 6 weeks reduce the ozone concentration to 65%, after which it does not recover to its original level. Over time, the Antarctic atmosphere with a low ozone content mixes with the rest of the atmosphere and the total ozone content slowly decreases. In 1993, global ozone concentration was several percent lower than in 1973-1978. The main reason for concern about the decrease in the amount of ozone is that each percentage of the reduction in ozone concentration increases by 2% the amount of ultraviolet radiation that comes to Earth, resulting in an increase in the incidence of skin cancer and cataracts. Depletion of ozone reserves (albeit on a much smaller scale) is also a consequence of the influence of a number of natural factors, for example, acid decomposition during volcanic eruptions. Similar processes were observed in 1991 during the eruption of the Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines.
The economic importance of Antarctica.   The main areas of Antarctic economic use are concentrated in the field of fisheries and tourism. Coal mining is completely prohibited under the Antarctic Environment Protocol. The main economic activity in the Antarctic is the use of biological resources. Until recently, whaling occupied a significant place, but it declined markedly in the late 1960s. For more than 20 years, from the 1930s to the 1950s, whaling vessels mined 1.5–2 million tons of whale meat in the Antarctic. A record high figure of 3 million tons was achieved just before the Second World War. Since 1985, annual whale production has declined to approximately 330 minke whales. Whaling is regulated by the International Whaling Commission (IWC). During the same period, mainly seals were hunted on the subantarctic islands. Some species were almost completely destroyed. At present, no seals are hunted, and the number of individual species has reached the initial level or even exceeded it. Fishing began to develop rapidly in the late 1960s, catches quickly reached 400 thousand tons per year, but soon fish resources decreased and the catch fell to about 100 thousand tons per year. Fisheries and krill fisheries are governed by the provisions of the Convention on the Protection of Antarctic Marine Bioresources. In the early 1990s, the krill fishery was the most significant economic sector in the Antarctic. Recently, it has stabilized at approx. 300 thousand tons per year. The Antarctic krill fishery is the largest in the world. This fishing is mainly done by Russians, Ukrainians and Japanese. Feed flour, food pastes, vitamins are made from krill, it is also used in food. Antarctica is visited annually by approx. 6 thousand tourists. Most of them are sent to the Antarctic Peninsula, where there is a tourist base and an airfield. In the 1990s, tourism spread to the Ross Sea and some areas south of Australia. Most tourists make Antarctic ship cruises.
LITERATURE
Markov K.K., Bardin V.I., Lebedev V.L. et al. Geography of Antarctica. M., 1968 Treshnikov A.F. Antarctic. Research, discovery. L., 1980 Australia and Oceania. Antarctica. M., 1981 The Arctic and Southern Oceans. L., 1985

Encyclopedia of Collier. - Open Society. 2000 .