Morality and moral standards. Moral principles. Ethical principles

Doctrine of morality

Moraml (lat. Moralis - relating to morals) is one of the main ways of normative regulation of human actions. Morality embraces moral views and feelings, life orientations and principles, goals and motives of actions and relationships, dividing the line between good and evil, conscience and unscrupulousness, honor and dishonor, justice and injustice, norm and abnormality, mercy and cruelty, etc.

Morality - is the assumption of responsibility for their actions. Since, as follows from the definition, morality is based on free will, so far only a free being can be moral. In contrast to morality, which is an external requirement for an individual’s behavior, along with law, morality is an individual’s internal orientation to act according to his conscience.

Morality

In Russian, the concepts of morality and morality have different shades. Morality, as a rule, implies the presence of an external evaluating subject (other people, society, church, etc.). Morality is more oriented to the inner world of a person and his own beliefs.

Morality in the broad sense is a special form of social consciousness and a form of social relations.

Morality in the narrow sense is a set of principles and norms of human behavior in relation to each other and society. Morality is a value structure of consciousness, a way of regulating human actions in all areas of life, including work, life and attitude to the environment.

About morality

Morality is one of the main types of regulatory regulation, such as law, customs, traditions, etc., intersects with them and at the same time differs significantly from them ....

Morality reaches its highest development in a socialist and communist society, where it becomes unified within the framework of this society and subsequently completely universal morality.

Moral norms are implemented in practice and are reproduced daily by the power of mass habits, dictates and assessments of public opinion, educated in the individual beliefs and motivations.

Compliance with the requirements of the Morale can be monitored by all people, without exception, and individually. The authority of a person in morality is not associated with any official authority, real power and social position, but it is a spiritual authority, i.e. due to its moral qualities (the power of example) and the ability to adequately express the meaning of a moral requirement in a particular case. In general, in morality, there is no separation of subject and object of regulation characteristic of institutional norms.

Morality reflects a holistic system of views on social life, containing in itself a particular understanding of the essence ("purpose", "meaning", "goal") of society, history, man and his being.

Morality, from the point of view of its general principles, ideals, criteria of good and evil, and moral outlook may be critical of the actually adopted way of life (which is expressed in the views of the progressive class or, on the contrary, conservative social groups). In general, in Morale, unlike custom, what is due and actually accepted coincides far from always and not completely ...

In preclass and early class society, incomplete conformity and even the opposite of moral requirements to the generally accepted practice of ordinary behavior is recognized for the first time. The era of social inequality, private interests and competition of individuals, class oppression and the unequal position of the working people has contributed to the formation in the masses of consciousness of the injustice of the existing order, the degradation of morals compared to the past, "... which directly seems to us to be a decline, a fall compared with a high moral level, old tribal society. "

Communist morality is characterized by the consistent implementation of the principle of equality and cooperation between people and peoples, collectivism, respect for a person in all spheres of his social and personal manifestations on the basis of the principle that "... the free development of everyone is a condition for the free development of everyone." Since communist morality is alien to the consideration of society and individual life as the external means of one in relation to another, or both are indissoluble unity, the sacrifices characteristic of bourgeois morality by one moral principle for the other are unacceptable to it (for example, sacrifice with honesty for the sake of profit, achievement goals of some at the expense of others, compromises of politics and conscience). She is the highest form of humanism.

Morality and morality of man and society, the rules of relations will change in accordance with the Unified Law, there will simply be no contradictions at each stage of evolution between laws and moral standards, because they will be resolved in the most natural way.

In modern conditions, there is a special interest in ethics - this oldest and at the same time uniquely young branch of philosophical knowledge. And this is no coincidence. The development of Russia in the direction of a democratic legal state, the regulation of all its social structures, including the military organization, is impossible without morality.

Scientific knowledge about morality, the laws of its emergence and development are necessary for each officer in order to conduct qualified training and education of personnel, to strengthen military discipline and moral and psychological readiness of military personnel to fulfill their constitutional duty to ensure the national security of the country.

The word "morality" in modern language means roughly the same thing as morality. Therefore, most experts do not draw a strict distinction between morality and morality and considers these words synonyms. It should be said that the word "ethics" originally meant the same thing as "morality" and "morality." They still talk about the ethics of behavior, the ethics of an officer, about pedagogical ethics, etc., referring mainly to moral norms and moral relations that have developed in a particular area of \u200b\u200bpublic life. Yet the word ethics is now more often used to refer to the science of morality. It is in this sense that we will use this category.

Ethics finds out the place of morality in the system of social relations, analyzes its nature and internal structure, studies the origin and historical development of morality, theoretically substantiates this or that system. As a philosophical science, ethics arises at that stage in the development of human society, when there is a separation of spiritual and practical activity and material and practical. In the beginning, it meant life wisdom, practical knowledge regarding how to behave. The oldest ethical norm of human behavior is the "golden rule" of morality. Its most common wording reads: “(Do not) act towards others the way you (not) would like them to act towards you. The Golden Rule is already found in the early written monuments of many cultures (In the teachings of Confucius, in the ancient Indian Mahabrat, in the Bible, in the "Odyssey" of Homer, etc.) and firmly enters the consciousness of subsequent eras. In Russian, it appears in the form of the proverb "Whatever you do not love, do not do it yourself."

The meaningful meaning that is embedded in the moral ideal essentially depends on the world outlook of people and is therefore different in various philosophical systems. For example, Heraclitus taught that everything is done according to the Logos. Hence, of course, there was the assumption that human behavior then turns out to be moral, pious, legal, when it is consistent with the law, natural necessity.

In the future, there is a deepening and change in ideas about the moral ideal of man. Attention is drawn to the fact that, along with natural necessity, human behavior is controlled by the customs of people, the establishment of culture, everything that makes up a different, second, non-material nature. This "second nature" itself appears as the result of choice and the product of creativity, activity of the person himself. It is man-made and created by man himself. And this means that morality can be learned. The individual, in order to become moral, must be guided by his own convictions, and not rely on someone (fate, oracles, teachers, etc.). Morality is that which refers to the "second nature", to the cultural layer of human life, to what characterizes a person as a social and not a natural being.

The moral qualities of a person are those that characterize him in terms of his ability to live in society. They are formed in practical communication and joint activities of people. Aristotle attributed such qualities to courage, moderation, generosity, magnificence, grandeur, ambition, truthfulness, friendliness, amiability, and also justice and friendship. By developing these qualities in oneself, a person becomes moral. And in this sense, everything that serves to strengthen society and the state is moral.

With the transition from the polis organization of public life to large state and political formations such as the empire of A. the Great, new ideas about morality and virtue arise. The instability of living conditions, the uncertainty of tomorrow, the dependence of the fate of individuals, their life success and happiness not only on personal virtues, but also on unpredictable life circumstances caused ideas about morality as a subjective state. Many philosophers began to argue that morality is a kind of internal attitude that does not depend on people's behavior and opposes them. Widespread notions of morality, developed by stoicism, epicurism and skepticism. The Stoics, for example, understood morality as inner peace, achieved as a result of an indifferent, persistent attitude towards the world. Epicurism believed that human happiness is made up of sensual and spiritual pleasures, calmness and equanimity. Skepticism proved the need for principled abstinence from certain judgments, since uncertainty and doubt are the normal psychological state of a person.

Morality is very often mistakenly identified with morality. But these two concepts, if you look, carry the opposite meaning. And although morality is still interpreted in some dictionaries as a synonym for morality, let’s try to figure out why this is not worth doing.

Definition

Morality - the system of norms and values \u200b\u200badopted in this particular society, designed to regulate the relationship between people.

Moral - Strict observance by a person of his internal principles, which are at the same time universal, universal in nature.

Comparison

Morality and morality are fundamental philosophical categories that are administered by the science of ethics. But the meaning that they carry is different. The essence of morality is that it prescribes or prohibits specific human actions or actions. Morality is formed by society, and therefore it always meets the interests of a certain group (national, religious, etc.). Think about it, even criminal clans have their own morality! At the same time, they are necessarily opposed by another part of society - with its own foundations and norms, and it follows from this that there can be a great many morals at one time. Usually, morality is fixed in the law (code), which enshrines certain norms of behavior. Each act of a person according to this law is evaluated by society negatively or positively. It is interesting that in the same society, morality can change over time beyond recognition (as, for example, happened in Russia in the 20th century), dictating directly opposite principles of behavior.

Morality is unchanged in content and extremely simple in form. It is absolute and expresses the interests of man (and humanity) as a whole. One of the main moral guidelines is considered to be relation to another, as to oneself, and love for one's neighbor, which means morality initially does not accept violence, contempt, humiliation, infringement on anyone’s rights. The most moral act is the person who commits moral acts, without even thinking about it. He simply cannot behave differently. Morality is primarily aimed at self-affirmation, and morality - at selfless interest in another person. Morality is closest to the ideal, to the universe.

Website conclusions

Morality is connected with the spiritual, and morality with the social sphere.
Morality is characterized by constancy; morality is extremely volatile.
Morality is one for all, and a great many moral principles.
Moral principles are absolute, and moral principles are conditional (depending on place and time).
Morality strives to conform to a certain pattern (usually somewhere written down), morality is based on "domestic law."

The question at a certain stage of life is asked, perhaps, by every person. The concept has several meanings, but in general, ethics refers to the individual’s correct attitude to his own life path, to other people and living beings, to God.

They are specific norms of behavior, intangible values \u200b\u200baccepted in any society. By the way, in each individual society, these values \u200b\u200band norms are purely individual. If some people have a handshake at a meeting is a sign of good taste and a benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor, then others may take such a personal touch as an insult.

Norms even in one particular society at different periods of time can vary significantly. At its core, morality is always and everywhere the same, but in its specific content it can have variations. For example, canons such as “being truthful and well-meaning towards each other” or “not doing evil to others” remain unchanged for everyone and always. Take at least the biblical commandments that are familiar to everyone - what is not an option for ethical postulates? But the opposite example: if a few centuries ago, or shorts on a woman were considered the height of indecency, then modern ethics are very loyal in this matter.

Ethical values \u200b\u200balso vary depending on certain social groups. Any ethics dictionary will tell you that the norms of behavior between close friends or relatives are significantly different from those adopted between work employees or unfamiliar people.

Often in our minds the concept of "ethics" is confused with the concept of "morality." But in fact, they are fundamentally different. Simplified morality can be called a clear idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is “good” and “bad”. These manifestations can be different even in the same national group in different eras, to say nothing about different continents. The principles of ethics are objective, they constitute an understanding of the whole human path. What is the core of the spiritual development of each of us. Attached to it are skills, character traits, abilities and other aspects of the human inner world.

Speaking of what ethics is, one cannot but mention the religious aspect. In accordance with the main commandment of the Old Testament, the basic is the love of man for God. In relation to all living beings without exception, the main role in ethics is played by compassion. It means care and respect for people, animals and plants.

You can still talk about ethics as one of the areas of philosophy, the subject of which is the study of the customs and values \u200b\u200bof a particular human group. Within its framework, several sections are separately considered. Among them, metaethics as the study of all concepts of science, normative ethics - ways of determining norms and rules, their study and interpretation, as well as applied ethics - the use of the above norms in practice.

Of course, the subject of this article is wide and ambiguous. But now you can answer the question of what is ethics.

It contains a historically changing moral relationship, representing the subjective side of morality. At the core of moral consciousness is the category of morality. Morality is a concept that is synonymous with morality. Morality arose earlier than other forms of social consciousness, even in primitive society, and acted as a regulator of human behavior in all areas of public life: in everyday life, in work, in personal relationships. Morality supported the social foundations of life, forms of communication.

What is morality

Morality- the system of norms and values \u200b\u200badopted in this particular society, designed to regulate the relationship between people.

Moral- Strict observance by a person of his internal principles, which are at the same time universal, universal in nature.

Comparison of morality and morality

What is the difference between morality and morality?

41. Values, their nature and classification.

The concept and nature of values

The philosophical doctrine of values \u200b\u200band their nature is called axiology (from the Greek. Axios - value and logos - teaching). But before developing in its modern form, this theory went through the historical path of development, equal to the formation of philosophy itself, within which it was formed.

In ancient, and then medieval philosophy, values \u200b\u200bwere identified with being itself, and value characteristics were included in its concept. Values, therefore, were not separated from being, but were considered to be in being itself.

Different historical eras and different philosophical systems leave their mark on the understanding of values. In the Middle Ages, they are associated with a divine essence, acquire a religious character. The Renaissance highlights the values \u200b\u200bof humanism. In modern times, the development of science and new social relations largely determines the basic approach to the consideration of objects and phenomena as values.

Values \u200b\u200bare always human values \u200b\u200band are social in nature. They are formed on the basis of social practice, individual activity of a person and within the framework of certain specific historical social relations and forms of communication of people. Values \u200b\u200bdo not arise from nowhere and are not invested in a person from outside. They are formed in the process of its socialization and are dynamic in nature. In this regard, it should be said that the whole life experience of a person and the system of his knowledge directly affect the nature of his values. The same wine will be evaluated in different ways and will be of different value to a wine taster and to another person. The same can be said about the attitude of the believer and atheist towards God.

Classification of values \u200b\u200band their types:

1. Values \u200b\u200bmay vary on the basis of what is being evaluated and on the basis of which something is being evaluated. In this regard, distinguish:

but) subject values- i.e. phenomena of reality that have a certain significance for the subject. These include:

Natural objects, processes and phenomena;

Social objects;

b) subjective values- methods and criteria on the basis of which these or those phenomena are estimated. These include:

Attitudes, assessments, imperatives, prohibitions of purpose, projects expressed in the form of normative representations.

2. Values \u200b\u200bdiffer from each other in the sphere of society they are associated with. In this regard, they distinguish: moral, artistic, utilitarian, scientific and other values.

3. Values \u200b\u200bmay vary in degree of generality, that is, according to how many subjects this or that phenomenon is significant. In this regard, distinguish:

Just values;

Group values \u200b\u200b(national, religious, gender, age);

General human.

4. Values \u200b\u200bmay vary in how much they are recognized by the subject as their own goals and principles, or simply accepted as something dictated by an external circumstance. In this regard, we can distinguish:

External values;

Inner values.

5. Values \u200b\u200bare distinguished by how important they are for the very foundations of human life, for expressing the essence of his needs and orientation. In this regard, distinguish:

Absolute or eternal values \u200b\u200b(constants);

Situational, passing values \u200b\u200bor specifically historical forms of values \u200b\u200band value orientations (empirical variables).

6. Values \u200b\u200bare distinguished by the functions that they perform. In this regard, they single out values \u200b\u200bas a way of orientation, values \u200b\u200bas a means of control in social groups, values \u200b\u200bas functionally necessary norms when creating and maintaining a social product, etc.

The concept of morality. main moral categories.

Morality (lat. moralis - relating to morals) - one of the main ways of normative regulation of human actions in society; a special form of social consciousness and a type of social relations. Morality embraces moral views and feelings, life orientations and principles, goals and motives of actions and relationships, dividing the line between good and evil, conscience and unscrupulousness, honor and dishonor, justice and injustice, norm and abnormality, mercy and cruelty, etc.

Moral - the term most often used in speech and literature as a synonym for morality, sometimes ethics. In a narrower sense, morality is the individual’s internal orientation to act according to his conscience and free will — unlike morality, which, along with the law, is an external requirement for the individual’s behavior.

The concepts of morality and morality have different shades. Morality, as a rule, implies the presence of an external evaluating subject (other people, society, church, etc.). Morality is more oriented to the inner world of a person and his own beliefs.

Morality in the broad sense is a special form of social consciousness and a form of social relations.

Morality in the narrow sense is a set of principles and norms of human behavior in relation to each other and society.

Morality is a value structure of consciousness, a way of regulating human actions in all areas of life, including work, life and attitude to the environment.

It is with morality that the distinction between good and evil is associated, provided that these categories are recognized by the individual. Unlike good and harm, good and evil are associated with the intent of some free will.

Morality and morality is studied by a special philosophical discipline - ethics.

The main moral categories:
Good, evil, conscience, duty, honor, friendship, happiness.
Good is the most general concept of morality, which unites the totality of positive norms and requirements of morality and acts as an ideal. morality, which permeates all aspects of human life.
Evil is the opposite of good. The category of evil is a generalized expression of ideas about everything immoral that deserves judgment and must be overcome. For example, in relations between people, evil is when people are treated not as individuals as such, but in order to benefit, use for their own selfish purposes.
Evil is a generic concept in relation to all morally negative phenomena - deception, meanness, cruelty, etc. Evil manifests itself in both small and large. Evil is rooted in habits, morals, in everyday psychology. When, having committed an unseemly act, we try to blame others, we thereby act ignoble, we lose our dignity
Conscience is the voice of God in us, the inner judge who directs and judges our actions. Regardless of the views on the nature of morality, many moralists (Abelard, Kant, Kierkegaard, Tolstoy, Moore, Fromm) defined conscience as the highest ability to comprehend moral truth.
The concept of duty, first of all, reveals the relationship of the individual and society. A person acts as an active carrier of certain moral obligations to society, which she is aware of and realizes in her activities. The category of debt is very closely related to concepts such as responsibility, self-awareness.
According to A. Schopenhauer, honor is an external conscience, and conscience is an internal honor. Honor is a public opinion of our value, our fear of this opinion. So, for example, the concept of official or professional honor is directly related to the opinion that a person holding a position really has all the necessary data for this and always accurately performs his official duties.
The concept of happiness in all ethical systems is directly associated with an understanding of the meaning of life, since in the most general form, happiness is defined as a state of moral satisfaction, satisfaction with one’s life.
Happiness is a state of the greatest satisfaction of a person with the conditions of his being, a feeling of fullness and meaningfulness of life is both well-being, health and the degree of freedom and confidence of a person in the usefulness of his existence on earth.
Love is a feeling that is aimed at a specific person. The object of individual love is perceived by the loving as a unique combination of personal virtues. One of the most mysteries of love is the inexplicability of this selectivity, the ability of the lover to see in the beloved what others do not notice.

29. The problems of modern ethics: terrorism.

Terrorism - A policy based on the systematic use of terror. Synonyms of the word "terror" (lat. Terror - fear, horror) are the words "violence", "intimidation", "intimidation". There is no universally accepted legal definition of this concept. In Russian law (CC, Art. 205), it is defined as the ideology of violence and the practice of influencing public consciousness, decision-making by public authorities, local authorities or international organizations related to intimidation of the population and / or other forms of unlawful violent actions

Terrorism in its scope, consequences, intensity, destructive force, in its inhumanity and cruelty, the problem has now become one of the most terrible problems of all mankind.

The extremely dangerous socio-political and criminal phenomenon that constitutes terrorism has become a global security threat at the turn of the millennium. This evil has not spared CIS countries. And if in previous years in the countries the studies of terrorism were mainly of a scientific and theoretical nature and focused on foreign experience, then by the mid-90s, research in this area had gained great practical significance. Unfortunately, recent Russian reality has recently provided enough material for specialists addressing the study of the problems of terrorism. The results of such a study are of interest to a wide circle of employees of domestic law enforcement agencies and special services, on whose shoulders lies the main and most dangerous part of the work to combat terrorist manifestations. However, it is completely wrong to assume that only the security and internal affairs bodies are responsible for the state of affairs in the field of eliminating the threats of terrorism. This task is multifaceted; it requires a solution at the national level, and on individual issues - at the international level.

The fight against terrorism is a serious problem that requires deep and comprehensive study. In this regard, the appearance of "Notes on Terrorism" by V.E. Petrishchev. In his articles, the author considers various aspects of terrorism and the fight against this phenomenon. In order to build an effective mechanism to counter terrorist threats, you should first deal with what constitutes the object of influence. In this regard, the author’s research on nature, nature, genesis, manifestations of terrorism, its ideological roots and driving forces is interesting. The author reveals the causes of terrorism and the circumstances conducive to the implementation of terrorist intentions. It shows the relationship of terrorism with other types of extremism, implicated in the ideology of separatism, nationalism, clericalism.

Terrorism in all its forms and manifestations and in its scale and intensity, in its inhumanity and cruelty has now become one of the most acute and topical problems of global significance.

All manifestations of terrorism entail massive human sacrifice, all spiritual, material, cultural values \u200b\u200bthat cannot be recreated for centuries are destroyed. Terrorist acts led the authorities and the population to create anti-terrorist organizations and units. For many people, terrorism is becoming a way to solve such problems as political, religious, national. Terrorism in its essence refers to such methods of depriving human lives, the victims of which are most often innocent people who have nothing to do with the conflict.

30. The problems of modern ethics: the issue of the death penalty.

The death penalty - The deprivation of human life as permitted by law as a capital punishment (usually for a particularly serious crime). At different times in Russian and Soviet juridical practice, the euphemisms “exceptional punishment”, “capital punishment”, “capital punishment”, from which the slang name “tower” or “tower” came from, were used for the death penalty.